Taranis
Elite member
Since the discussion recently came up, I would like to elaborate the situation on the Iberian penninsula in Antiquity a bit, especially on the aspect of linguistic heterogenity. Note that the analysis below excludes the Basque-Aquitanian and Iberian areas in the east and southeast of Iberia, and only includes town names thus far. The rest (north, northwest and west) I did divide into seven areas, and I cathegorized the names into Celtic- or Celtic-compatible, Latin/Roman, and Other/Unknown (as well as 'known' other such as Iberian and Phoenician as the need arose):
North (20 towns)
Celtic or compatible with Celtic: 14 (70%)
Latin/Roman: 3 (15%)
Other/Unknown: 4 (20%)
Celtiberia Proper (34 towns)
Celtic or compatible with Celtic : 17 (50%)
Latin/Roman: 6 (17.6%)
Iberian: 1 (2.9%)
Other/Unknown: 10 (29.4%)
Southwest (15 towns)
Celtic or compatible with Celtic: 5? (33.3%)
Roman/Latin: 3 (20%)
Phoenician: 3 (20%)
Other/Unknown: 4 (26.7%)
Central Duero (20 towns)
Celtic or compatible with Celtic: 6 (30%)
Latin/Roman: 4 (20%)
Other/Unknown: 10 (50%)
Lusitania Proper (40 towns)
Celtic or compatible with Celtic: 11 (27.5%)
Latin/Roman: 10 (25%)
Other/Unknown: 19 (47.5%)
Gallaecia (50 towns)
Celtic or compatible with Celtic: 12 (24%)
Latin/Roman: 19 (38%)
Other/Unknown: 19 (38%)
Inland Southeast (30 towns)
Celtic or compatible with Celtic: 4 (12.9%)
Latin/Roman: 7 (20.6%)
Iberian: 2 (5.8%)
Other/Unknown: 17 (56.6%)
The cathegories above can be further split into the following cathegories:
1) Celtic Names
Celtic town names are abundant on the ancient Iberian penninsula. The most common name element, by far, is the suffix '-briga' ('mountain', 'height', but perhaps more accurately translated as "castle", as it's a cognate with Germanic '-burgh'). However, as we will see this suffix is not restricted to Celtic town names. Celtic or Celtic-influenced town names are most common in the north, with Celtiberia proper as the second-most frequent area, and they decrease in their frequency from there.
Celtic names include:
- Brigantium (identical town names existed in France, Switzerland and Austria)
- Cambitum
- Celiobriga
- Cetobrix or Cetobriga
- Ebura ('eburo-' = 'yew')
- Morica ('moro-' = 'sea', compare 'Aremorica)
- Nemetobriga ('holy/sacred castle')
- Numantia
- Segisamum
- Segovia
- Segobriga ('victorious castle')
- Turiasso
- Uxama Argaela (Ups- -> Ux- 'highest', Par- > Ar- 'before/upon')
- Uxama Barca
- Vindelia ('windo-' = 'white)
- Visontium
There is also a few town names that make sense as Celtic if they were transmitted erroneously:
- Ambisna ('Ambi-' = 'around', second element unclear)
- Deobrigula and Diobriga from "Divobriga" ('divine castle')
- Mediolum form 'Mediolanum'
2) Roman Names
The Roman empire established a considerable number of towns on the Iberian penninsula. In much of the penninsula, Roman town (including those with mixed Roman/non-Roman) names make up between a sixth and a fifth of the town names.
Examples include:
- Aemiliana
- Aqua Calidae ('hot springs')
- Aqua Flavia
- Augusta Emerita
- Bravum
- Concordia
- Confluenta
- Laminium
- Lucus Augusti ('grove of Augustus')
- Mantua
- Pax Julia
- Porta Augusta
- Rusticana
- Valeria
3) Mixed Roman-Other Names
A typical phenomenon, not only on the Iberian penninsula but elsewhere inside the Roman Empire were mixed Roman/non-Roman names.
Examples of this include:
- Augustobriga (second element Celtic)
- Segisama Julia (the first element is Celtic)
- Juliobriga (second element Celtic)
- Flavia Lambris (second element unclear)
- Forum Gigurrum (second element is a Gallaecian tribal name)
- Ocellum Duri ('eye of the Duero')
4) Mixed Celtic/Non-Celtic Names
These names are also quite freqent throught the Iberian penninsula. These names often include the first name element as non-Celtic and the second as Celtic '-briga'. The largest concentration of these names is found in the southwest of the Iberian penninsula, where these names make up the bulk of the Celtic-compatible names.
Examples include:
- Arabriga
- Arcobriga
- Caladunum
- Glandomirum
- Laccobriga or Lancobriga
- Merobriga
- Mirobriga
- Sarabris (possibly)
- Talabriga
- Tongobriga or Tuntobriga
- Volobriga
5) Unclear/Non-Celtic names subject to Celtiberian sound laws
A unique feature about the Celtiberian language, which makes it distinct from all other Celtic languages, is the merger of /s/ and /d/ in certain positions in words into a ð-like sound, usually transliterated as "z" from the Celtiberian inscriptions and variably rendered as 's' or 'd' in Latin inscriptions, and this of course affects Celtiberian town names as well, even those with (apparently) originally non-Celtic names. Naturally, these town names are found only in the proximity of Celtiberia Proper.
Examples include:
- Bilbilis/Bilbiliz
- Bursada/Burzao
- Condabora/Consabura
6) Gallaecian-Lusitanian Names
These can be found almost exclusively in the northwest of the Iberian penninsula (where they make up a bulk of the local names), although a few can be found in the inland southeast (Carpetania and Oretania). Their main feature is the disobedience to Celtic sound laws, most importantly they retain the *p from Proto-Indo-European, which is in contrast to the loss of the *p in Proto-Celtic.
- Caepiana
- Capara
- Capasa
- Complutum
- Complutica
- Ispinum
- Lupparia
- Paelontium
- Pallantia
- Petavonium
- Pinetus
- Pintia
- Segontia Paramica (compare with Celtic Ar-, Are-)
7) Iberian Names
The (eponymous) Iberians, a non-Indo-European people, were most densely present in the east of Iberia (modern-day Catalonia, Valenican Country and eastern Andalusia), however a few Iberian names can be found further west in the inland. Evidence for Iberian names includes the prefix 'il(i)-' (which may be a cognate with Basque 'hiri', 'town'), as well as the gentilix suffix '-sken' found in Iberian mint.
Examples include:
- Ilarcuris
- Illurbida
- Uresca
8) Phoenician Names
Most Phoenician settlements were in Andalusia, but there were also a few in the southwest, such as Balsa (compare Ba'al) and Ossonoba.
9) Other Non-Celtic and Non-Roman Names
There is a considerable number of other place names that will be addressed as follows which do not fit in anywhere else, but occur throughout the penninsula. Amongst the list below, the recurring stem 'Sal-' is of mention. It might be Celtic etymology ('salt', 'brine'), but note that cognates of this word can be found in most other branches of Indo-European and hence the stem 'Sal-' is by no means an indicator for Celtic languages.
- Ammea
- Biatia
- Burdua
- Burum
- Chritina
- Eldana
- Egelesta
- Laccuris
- Lama
- Lavarae
- Libora
- Libiosa
- Libunca
- Manliana
- Mentesa
- Metercosa
- Rigusa
- Salacia
- Salari
- Salica
- Salionca
- Tacubis
- Tunde
- Varada
So, the underlining conclusion is that the Iberian penninsula was not only a diverse but also heterogenous place. The different types of names that I cathegorized here occured side-by-side in the same general area.
North (20 towns)
Celtic or compatible with Celtic: 14 (70%)
Latin/Roman: 3 (15%)
Other/Unknown: 4 (20%)
Celtiberia Proper (34 towns)
Celtic or compatible with Celtic : 17 (50%)
Latin/Roman: 6 (17.6%)
Iberian: 1 (2.9%)
Other/Unknown: 10 (29.4%)
Southwest (15 towns)
Celtic or compatible with Celtic: 5? (33.3%)
Roman/Latin: 3 (20%)
Phoenician: 3 (20%)
Other/Unknown: 4 (26.7%)
Central Duero (20 towns)
Celtic or compatible with Celtic: 6 (30%)
Latin/Roman: 4 (20%)
Other/Unknown: 10 (50%)
Lusitania Proper (40 towns)
Celtic or compatible with Celtic: 11 (27.5%)
Latin/Roman: 10 (25%)
Other/Unknown: 19 (47.5%)
Gallaecia (50 towns)
Celtic or compatible with Celtic: 12 (24%)
Latin/Roman: 19 (38%)
Other/Unknown: 19 (38%)
Inland Southeast (30 towns)
Celtic or compatible with Celtic: 4 (12.9%)
Latin/Roman: 7 (20.6%)
Iberian: 2 (5.8%)
Other/Unknown: 17 (56.6%)
The cathegories above can be further split into the following cathegories:
1) Celtic Names
Celtic town names are abundant on the ancient Iberian penninsula. The most common name element, by far, is the suffix '-briga' ('mountain', 'height', but perhaps more accurately translated as "castle", as it's a cognate with Germanic '-burgh'). However, as we will see this suffix is not restricted to Celtic town names. Celtic or Celtic-influenced town names are most common in the north, with Celtiberia proper as the second-most frequent area, and they decrease in their frequency from there.
Celtic names include:
- Brigantium (identical town names existed in France, Switzerland and Austria)
- Cambitum
- Celiobriga
- Cetobrix or Cetobriga
- Ebura ('eburo-' = 'yew')
- Morica ('moro-' = 'sea', compare 'Aremorica)
- Nemetobriga ('holy/sacred castle')
- Numantia
- Segisamum
- Segovia
- Segobriga ('victorious castle')
- Turiasso
- Uxama Argaela (Ups- -> Ux- 'highest', Par- > Ar- 'before/upon')
- Uxama Barca
- Vindelia ('windo-' = 'white)
- Visontium
There is also a few town names that make sense as Celtic if they were transmitted erroneously:
- Ambisna ('Ambi-' = 'around', second element unclear)
- Deobrigula and Diobriga from "Divobriga" ('divine castle')
- Mediolum form 'Mediolanum'
2) Roman Names
The Roman empire established a considerable number of towns on the Iberian penninsula. In much of the penninsula, Roman town (including those with mixed Roman/non-Roman) names make up between a sixth and a fifth of the town names.
Examples include:
- Aemiliana
- Aqua Calidae ('hot springs')
- Aqua Flavia
- Augusta Emerita
- Bravum
- Concordia
- Confluenta
- Laminium
- Lucus Augusti ('grove of Augustus')
- Mantua
- Pax Julia
- Porta Augusta
- Rusticana
- Valeria
3) Mixed Roman-Other Names
A typical phenomenon, not only on the Iberian penninsula but elsewhere inside the Roman Empire were mixed Roman/non-Roman names.
Examples of this include:
- Augustobriga (second element Celtic)
- Segisama Julia (the first element is Celtic)
- Juliobriga (second element Celtic)
- Flavia Lambris (second element unclear)
- Forum Gigurrum (second element is a Gallaecian tribal name)
- Ocellum Duri ('eye of the Duero')
4) Mixed Celtic/Non-Celtic Names
These names are also quite freqent throught the Iberian penninsula. These names often include the first name element as non-Celtic and the second as Celtic '-briga'. The largest concentration of these names is found in the southwest of the Iberian penninsula, where these names make up the bulk of the Celtic-compatible names.
Examples include:
- Arabriga
- Arcobriga
- Caladunum
- Glandomirum
- Laccobriga or Lancobriga
- Merobriga
- Mirobriga
- Sarabris (possibly)
- Talabriga
- Tongobriga or Tuntobriga
- Volobriga
5) Unclear/Non-Celtic names subject to Celtiberian sound laws
A unique feature about the Celtiberian language, which makes it distinct from all other Celtic languages, is the merger of /s/ and /d/ in certain positions in words into a ð-like sound, usually transliterated as "z" from the Celtiberian inscriptions and variably rendered as 's' or 'd' in Latin inscriptions, and this of course affects Celtiberian town names as well, even those with (apparently) originally non-Celtic names. Naturally, these town names are found only in the proximity of Celtiberia Proper.
Examples include:
- Bilbilis/Bilbiliz
- Bursada/Burzao
- Condabora/Consabura
6) Gallaecian-Lusitanian Names
These can be found almost exclusively in the northwest of the Iberian penninsula (where they make up a bulk of the local names), although a few can be found in the inland southeast (Carpetania and Oretania). Their main feature is the disobedience to Celtic sound laws, most importantly they retain the *p from Proto-Indo-European, which is in contrast to the loss of the *p in Proto-Celtic.
- Caepiana
- Capara
- Capasa
- Complutum
- Complutica
- Ispinum
- Lupparia
- Paelontium
- Pallantia
- Petavonium
- Pinetus
- Pintia
- Segontia Paramica (compare with Celtic Ar-, Are-)
7) Iberian Names
The (eponymous) Iberians, a non-Indo-European people, were most densely present in the east of Iberia (modern-day Catalonia, Valenican Country and eastern Andalusia), however a few Iberian names can be found further west in the inland. Evidence for Iberian names includes the prefix 'il(i)-' (which may be a cognate with Basque 'hiri', 'town'), as well as the gentilix suffix '-sken' found in Iberian mint.
Examples include:
- Ilarcuris
- Illurbida
- Uresca
8) Phoenician Names
Most Phoenician settlements were in Andalusia, but there were also a few in the southwest, such as Balsa (compare Ba'al) and Ossonoba.
9) Other Non-Celtic and Non-Roman Names
There is a considerable number of other place names that will be addressed as follows which do not fit in anywhere else, but occur throughout the penninsula. Amongst the list below, the recurring stem 'Sal-' is of mention. It might be Celtic etymology ('salt', 'brine'), but note that cognates of this word can be found in most other branches of Indo-European and hence the stem 'Sal-' is by no means an indicator for Celtic languages.
- Ammea
- Biatia
- Burdua
- Burum
- Chritina
- Eldana
- Egelesta
- Laccuris
- Lama
- Lavarae
- Libora
- Libiosa
- Libunca
- Manliana
- Mentesa
- Metercosa
- Rigusa
- Salacia
- Salari
- Salica
- Salionca
- Tacubis
- Tunde
- Varada
So, the underlining conclusion is that the Iberian penninsula was not only a diverse but also heterogenous place. The different types of names that I cathegorized here occured side-by-side in the same general area.
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