MaybeMy J-L283 came from sardinia. Etruscan, sardinia and Iberian connection seems to be apparant to the pottery. Put that Connection also to the Daunian / Iapygian image I posted before. From the pdf.
https://www.researchgate.net/publica...ranean_setting
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As the denomination already alludes, the mediterraneiz-zante fit into the iconographical tradition of the “oriental-izing” EIA Mediterranean if compared to Iron Age Iberian,Etruscan and Italian bronzetti (see below). This groupconsists of schematic and roundish smaller figurines withlittle to no details or decoration, and often with a dynamicposture which serves to give them an expressionistic ap-pearance
126.Apart from the fixture for permanent installation,base plates which would enable movement of the statu-ettes are common. Less time and material went into themaking of the figurines of this group, as they are smallerand numerically fewer: 67 (25%) anthropomorphic whichare known to the author, and between 17 and 4319 (8% or20%) zoomorphic representations. Their often crude ac-complishment and lack of details means that time wassaved on decoration, hinting that it was only deemednecessary that the essentials should be depicted.3.3 Anthropomorphic representationsUta Abini (Fig. 2–4)The iconography of this group seems to follow a clear,repetitive code of representation. Most of the figurines(54%) depict warriors and archers (fig. 2,a–f; 3; 4,a–c.g),and among them, horned headdresses prevail. Theweaponry nearly always consists of a sword and roundshield, while only a single warrior carries a spear (fig. 7,f).Nine figurines of warriors which were found in Abini-Tetihave each four arms and eyes with each carrying twoshields and two swords. The important features of afighter are enhanced in these representations: extra eye-sight, extra strength and extra armament (fig. 2,b).
Together with a “minotaur” from the group of uniquefigurines (fig. 2,v) they clearly refer to the supernaturalworld. Raising a hand in a benedictory pose, a trait often observed on Near Eastern cult figurines 20, is a frequentgestus among all archetypes and persists in the following mediterraneizzante style.Female figurines can be identified by breasts, longcloaks and headdresses, as well as often holding smallvessels such as bowls or “incense burners” (fig. 2,j–l).Three women are depicted with a small man on their fold and raising a blessing hand (fig. 2,s–t). The offerentes fi-gurines are represented carrying round objects, vessels,animal hides in one hand, as well as goats on theirshoulders (fig. 2,g–i). One group of bronzetti wearingpointed hats and cloaks (fig. 2,m–o) may representspecialists of divination if compared to later images ofEtruscan haruspices (fig. 16,d.e) and the related deity ofdivination, ‘Tages’.Another group consisting of the biggest figurines onaverage (19.3 to 39 cm), represent a male with a staff......
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Pistilliform swords: In Sardinia, this type has been found in Siniscola-Oroè, dating to the 11th century BC, andthree figurines of the Uta-artist (see below, fig. 2,a.r) ob-viously shoulder these swords22. These swords represent a21 Manunza 2008, 250–257.22 See also Lo Schiavo 1990a, 219–220.type
common to the Atlantic Bronze Age, and the Black-moor/Braud/Huelva-Phase would be the last phase when pistilliform swords were still in use but already “bastante extraordinario”, which means they are mostly earlier than1050–930 cal. BC23.2.
Votive swords: The first original Sardinian swordsare purely symbolic weapons since their size and alloymake them extremely fragile and therefore unusable inactual fighting24. Those artefacts were often fixed on theroof-tops and “tables of offerings” of sanctuaries and aretherefore associated to their construction. In the Albuc-ciu-Arzachena hoard, votive sword fragments were foundwith pieces of
Cypriot oxhide ingots in a Nuragic pot of theLBA, 1300–1150 BC25. The fixing of bronzetti to the pointsof votive swords (fig. 3,a; 7,c), as well as the fact thatsome warrior bronzetti also carry votive swords (fig. 4,b.g)underline the cultic and chronological connection of bothobjects26.3.
3.5 Boats (fig. 8)
Depalmas who wrote an outstanding monograph on thisgroup of artefacts44, places them chronologically in theLBA (12th–11th century BC) and the EIA (10th–8th centuryBC). The iconographic complex involves: The boat with ahorned land animal’s head, the plough, land animals onboard, the nuraghe, and birds. Apart from the latter, boatsexclusively transport symbols of on-shore life. Stylisti-cally, they are all of the Uta-Abini school.
The figurehead of the bronze boats is always a hornedland animal45, that is: a bull, occasionally incorporatingwater-bird features, a deer or a goat. Scenes with a repre-sentation of two bulls on a yoke, moving in the oppositedirection as the bow, can be found. In one case, a bull islead by its horns by an anthropomorphic figure, which isthe only human passenger known so far (fig. 8,e). Domes-ticated land animals, dogs and pigs, are often on board.Birds are frequently sitting on the mast, the railing or on
nuraghe towers, which also frequently appear on boats(fig. 8,a.c). An exotic exception is one depiction of a boatwith a monkey46.A number of crude clay boat-miniatures, some withzoomorphic figureheads, has been found mostly in nur-aghi. Burnt on the inside, they appear to have been usedas lamps or incense-burners, though the same functioncannot be assumed for the bronze versions that do notshow traces of exposure to fire47.
Clay models of boatsfrom the LBA are also known from Crete, Cyprus, Lípariand the Levant48. In particular the Cypriot examples can be seen to have animal figureheads of bulls and birds49. Abig difference with these examples is that Cypriot pas-sengers are always humans and not animals. The Byblos hoard (c. 1500–1200 BC) contains several bronze boats, one of which is steered by a monkey50.The symbolic complex present on the navicelle, in-cluding the protagonist-animals of Sardinian iconography in general, as well as the monkey, but not the nuraghi, ap-pear in EIA Italy, worked into a mediterran eizzante style.The cult-wagon from Lucera51 and the kettle of Bisenzio-Olmo Bello involve most of these symbols, and both in-clude a ploughing scene (fig. 17). Human representationson both of these resemble Sardinian EIA figurines.
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4. “Philistine crown”: Only one figurine by the Utaartist wears this headdress30 which is known from the “seapeople”, mostly Peleset (Philistines) on the Medinet Haburelief, dated to 1176 BC31. There is archaeological evidencefor the presence of Philistines in the Gulf of Oristano32.
Sardinian EIA imagery, centred around fertility andsexuality, fits in with the iconography of figurative bronzes evolving in Iberia (fig. 15), the alpine region, and Italy (fig. 16; 17) during the “orientalizing” period33. Whilethe Uta-Abini style is self-consciously Sardinian and em-ploys typical Western-Mediterranean elements rooted in LBA iconography alongside many unique Sardinian char-acteristics, the mediterraneizzante style is connected to the Italian mainland and a rather uniform Mediterraneanstyle and iconography, emerging at a time of intensePhoenician trade. This would suggest an origination in the 9th century (confirmed by dating of the Antas bronzetto34,fig. 6,i), a climax of production in the 8th–6th centuries BCwith some late examples in the 5th. No artefact types canbe recognized due to the strong abstraction present in this stye.
Mediterraneizzante (Fig. 6)The iconography of this group is less repetitive, but sex is an obvious theme. Contrary to the former group, phallicrepresentations, hermaphrodites and nudes are present.Warriors are partly nude, ithyphallic, and are never de-picted with horned headgear. All of the defining symbolsof the Uta-Abini group, such as the gamma-hilted daggersand clearly defined swords, along with the emphasized haircuts and dress, have been abandoned. A heavy rup-ture in iconography is obvious. The figurine size in thisgroup has also diminished (4.5–17.3 cm, average 10 cm)
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Contexts
4.1 Sanctuaries
Sanctuaries Unfortunately, only about 50 % of the bronzetti are docu-mented in their original archaeological context. How-ever, it is clear that the most common use of figurativebronzetti was their visible and enduring exposureat sanctuaries dating from the LBA to the EIA, wherethey were fixed on stone bases with lead (fig. 10,b). 87%of the anthropomorphic and 46.2% of the zoomorphicfigurines from known contexts come from sacred struc-tures.Both styles – Uta-Abini and mediterraneizzante – canbe found together at sanctuaries. It has to be taken into ac-count that older bronzetti have been removed, probablyfor metal-recycling, in many cases. They were obviouslycut off at their feet, which often remained with the at-tached lead-fixing in the stone. A splendid example is the“altar”-fragment from Nurdole, where a figurine of “orien-talizing” style is placed very close to the remaining feet ofan Uta-Abini bronzetto (fig. 10,b, centre)
settingWhile votive swords and bronzetti were producednearly exclusively for display at sanctuaries, most of theSardinian bronze-work and imports from the LBA and EIAwere also found there58. This shows that the accumulationof precious metal objects was an important element of cultand social practices. No valuable bronze objects from Nu-ragic times, apart two EIA exceptions mentioned below,are found in contexts (i.e. tombs, houses) which wouldallow them to be associated with individuals, i.e. repre-senting personal wealth.
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4.2 Tombs and other contexts
Three statuettes were found in Sardinian single graves:One representation of a mediterraneizzante warrior atAntas62 and two of Uta-Abini archers at Sardara63, withboth tombs dating to the EIA. It has to be mentioned that single graves from the EIA are extremely rare, and apart from the two examples mentioned above, they have only been found at the Monte Prama site, where they do not contain grave-goods. In later periods, navicelle also ended up in a Punic and even a Roman tomb64.Some bronzetti, especially navicelle, have been foundin Villanovian and Etruscan religious contexts (tombs anda sanctuary hoard) on the Italian peninsula, e.g. anUta-Abini anthropomorphic figurine and two miniaturevessels in a tomb from the second half of the 9th century BCin Cav.alupo di Vulci65 (fig. 4,e)
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Function
Bronzetti are often seen as votive offerings donated bymembers of a stratified society at the sanctuaries, wherethe status of the donator would determine motive (in asense of self-representation) and quality of the figurine68.This implies that they are a major expression of social in-equality. Tronchetti and Van Dommelen accordingly see them as artefacts of the elite69. I prefer to see them as com-municative artefacts 70, a more neutral category, as their main use for society is to communicate religious and ideological concepts.“However, there are artefacts that are not produced for mechanical use (…), but rather are designed exclusively for human communication; that is, to be perceived and to signify (to refer to entities, imaginary or not). (…)As such, they can be classified as ‘means of production’ inhuman communication and learning.” 71The four-armed warriors and the chimaera mentionedabove are not the only references to supernatural spheres.In their context at the sanctuaries and in their Mediterra-nean setting, the bronzetti are cult images. As observedabove, the horned warrior and the horned archer are themost frequent motifs of the Uta-Abini bronzetti. Therefore,the archetype of the horned warrior will be compared to both the artwork and communicative artefacts of some of Sardinian’s contact regions. Shared iconography can be aresult of culture contact and can help in the establishmentof the chronological framework in which it emerged andwas used in a defined area. For the moment, the followingobservations in this chapter are the current working-hy-pothesis and further research will be necessary to confirmthe ideas expressed on the obvious similarities of Mediter-ranean LBA and EIA imagery.
Horned warriors in the LBA WestIn the LBA of the Western Mediterranean, depictions of warriors with horned headgear are well known from Iberian stelae 72 (fig. 11,a–c) and horned-warrior statue men-hirs from Corsica73 (fig. 12)
2010.Iconography is strikingly similar in Sardinia and Ibe-ria, where the warrior is equipped with a sword, roundshield and sometimes a bow. Differences in equipment in-clude the spear and wagon, both of which are frequent inIberia, but extremely rare to absent in Sardinia. Both re-gions developed distinguishing pictorial art in the LBA,using techniques and picture carriers according to re-gional preferences, but sharing the iconography of thehorned warrior. The so-called diademada-stelae, whichappear to constitute a female company of the Iberian war-rior (fig. 11,b.d), might cautiously be seen in relationshipto the female entities of the bronzetti.Iberia and Sardinia were in close contact during theLBA and EIA, exchanging metal objects and techniques74.Pistilliform and carp’s tongue swords were in use in bothregions contemporaneously. Comparing the typologicallyanalogous finds from both regions in their respective con-texts helps to confirm the dating of objects. Brandherm, inhis monograph on the Iberian swords of the Bronce Final,analysed the types depicted on the stelae75, with the chro-nological result that the types in use from the 12th, like the pistilli form, to the 9th century BC carp’s tongue blades arerepresented. More recent types are hardly identifiable.Noteworthy are also the representation of an ox-hideingot on an Iberian stelae (fig. 11,a), an ox-hide ingotshaped altar in Iberia76, Cypriot artefacts that have been discovered in Iberian LBA contexts77, all of which suggesta connection via Sardinia. In Huelva, nuragic pottery andbronze artefacts confirm traffic for the end of the LBA andthe EIA78.The Corsican statue menhirs, which include hornedswordsmen, recognizable through cavities on the menhirhead that served to allow the insertion of bulls horns (fig.12,a), are chronologically placed in the Bronze Moyen/Bronze Final79. A strong connection between the statue-menhirs and water can be detected, especially at foun-tains and the confluences of rivers80. Water was a keyfeature of Sardinian sanctuaries, which contained ico-nography, as well. Another outstanding feature is thephallic appearance of the backside of many statue-men-hirs (fig. 12,c). Female representations are so far unknownfrom LBA Corsica.
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5.2
Horned warriors in the LBA EastThe Atlantic and the Mediterranean were connected by steady traffic as well as the exchange of goods and people, and the island of Sardinia seems to have played a leading role in this network. Its most important partner to the East seems to have been Cyprus. Cypriot ox-hide copper ingotsfound on Sardinia are part of the rise of LBA metallurgy,trade and close contact between the two islands 81.The Eastern Mediterranean is the only region that can be compared to Sardinia for both the general use of bronze sculpture as a means of representation, and the quantity of figurines. Cyprus revealed few bronze statuettes, which date to the 12th century BC82 (fig. 14,a–d), while Sardinian production is topped only by the Levant and Anatolia
(fig. 13) in showing evidence of a long-lasting tradition of sculpture83.The Eastern representations were cult-images84, and the horned warrior is understood to have been a protagonist (fig. 13; 14,a.c).
Horned headdresses are reserved for gods, although they are not obligatory in designating a diety. Kristiansen85 stated: “It is obvious that in the Eastern Mediterranean, Asia Minor and the Near East horned anthropomorphic beings or those with horned helmets represented divinities.” He wrote this with respect to abronze statuette from Grevensvaenge, Denmark, c. 1000BC (fig. 14,e). So it seems that the idea might have travelled as far north as Scandinavia”. Pictorial representations of human warriors wearing horned headgear are known from the Eastern Mediterra-nean. In Egypt, on the Medinet Habu Relief of Ramses III,which has been dated to 1176 BC, some of the ‘seapeople’86, especially the Shardana, are characterized by it.On the Mycenaean ‘warrior vase’, dated to LH III B–C (c.1200 BC), a procession of warriors with horned headgearis shown, also involving the symbolism of the bull itself inthe vessel’s handles87. Thus, there most likely were warriors in the 12th century BC Mediterranean who actually did wear horned helmets in combat, which is hardly a sur-prise, since such a headdress would directly refer to the horned divinity with the evident martial aspect, and mighthave served to invoke the protection of the latter.
The most famous horned warrior-deity of the East isthe so-called ‘storm god’88. In Anatolia, he was believed to have been the ruler of the ‘subterranean ocean’ and was venerated at holy wells, fountains and sanctuaries. This is due to geological conditions in large parts of Anatolia,where water is mostly present in the subterranean streams of the karst regions89. The same geological features arepresent in Sardinia. In the Levant, the ‘storm god’ wasmore associated with the rainstorms, which constitute the most important source of live-giving water in the region90.Thus, it seems that each region adapted the archetype toits own situation, but the essence remained the same: The‘storm god’ was a god of fertility, weather, water and war,sometimes a divine hunter91.
All these associations appearto be evident in the Western Mediterranean horned war-rior images.
Meanings of the Horned Warrior The symbolism of a deity usually includes a level of mean-ing which corresponds to the natural force which it con-trols, a level which corresponds to a social function it pro-tects and a level where it manifests in sacred animals orplants whose life-cycles might depend on its good-will. Theidea behind creating the image of a deity is to make it ap-proachable, to gain influence on the forces controlled by it.Once the decision is taken to visualize a divine entity,it can be venerated and approached in the image of itssacred animal, and, once people take the step to personifya deity, in its anthropomorphic image92, a chimaera of thesacred animal and the human form may emerge, with at-tributes such as the horns of a bull serving to highlight thesupernatural nature of the image.
5.4 Change: Arrival of the ithyphallicsThe images of ‘horned warriors’ were all but extinct inthe West during the period called “orientalization”93(800–600 BC). In Italy, where bronze sculpture only began its career in the EIA, and in the iconography of the Iberian bronzetti94, the ‘horned warrior’ was never a motif, while the image of the bull remained important.Instead, representations of warriors and other male figurines of the 8th–5th centuries BC from Sardinia, Iberia and 103 Italy are mostly naked and phallic, while females are often naked or, as in Iberia, wear long dresses (fig. 6; 15–17).Hermaphroditic representations appear everywhere.While the essence of the warrior archetype might be unchanged, its iconography changes radically in thesense that attributes which express regional identity areno longer displayed anymore, as was the case with typi-cal weapon types or dress in the LBA imagery. Fertility at-tributes are expressed instead. In the LBA, it is only thephallic Corsican statue menhirs which explicitly show thisaspect. The fact that regional identity is not put into sceneanymore points towards changes in the socio-politicalrealm. [BFurthermore, imports of or locally produced figurines of clearly oriental and Egyptian gods spread in the Western Mediterranean via the Phoenicians.[/b]
5.5 Symbolism of some other archetypes
The bull can be said to be the most important animal inSardinian and Mediterranean iconography. In the East, it is connected to the ‘storm god’ and to Ishtar, later to the Greek ‘storm god’ Zeus.
In Iberia, the bull’s image appears first in conjunction with the horned warriors of the LBA/EIA stelae, and then becomes a common motif in Iberian art. The animals appearing in Italian and Etruscan im-agery of the EIA are strikingly similar to the Sardinian animal-bronzes95 (fig. 17).The vessel-bearing female (fig. 2,j–l; 6,l–n; 14,d; 15,f;16a; 17) is a popular figure in the art of the EIA Hallstattregions and Italy96. Looking to the East, Negbi includedsome LBA figurines of this type from the Near East in herSyro-Egyptian group97. The Sardinian statuettes might beamong the oldest preserved representations of a female divinity associated with ritual drinking in Western Europe. The offerentes carry mostly round objects, vessels oranimal hides in one hand or goats on their shoulders, andcould represent divinities of agriculture or pastoralism of-fering their gifts.95
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Origins
This chapter is again to be seen as a working-hypothesisthat has to be supported by further research: an emergingpicture from the study of the socio-political situation inthe Mediterranean in the LBA and EIA. Metallurgy reacheda remarkably high level in Sardinia in the 14th century BC,when a rupture between Middle Bronze Age (MBA) metal-lurgy and the LBA “bronze boom” is evident99. The use ofCypriot metal-working tools100, as well as the use of Iron inthe LBA101, as sophisticated technologies known in Sardi-nia straight from the LBA, imply that knowledge arrivedfrom the Atlantic and the Eastern Mediterranean at thattime and was integrated quickly in Nuragic society.
Of the metal forms, Cypriot types dominate tools forworking metal, and these are further developed by Sar-dinians. Other tools, especially axes, as well as mostweapon types, are clearly derived from peninsular, Ibe-rian or Atlantic types, such as pistilliform and carp’stongue swords and spearheads. The only items of in-disputable Sardinian origin are the votive swords andgamma-hilted daggers, both symbolic weapons. Cypriotshapes are used for ritual objects like tripods and for toiletequipment. The most distinguishing Sardinian ritual ob-jects are the bronzetti. Objects of ornament are rare andnearly always imports, except for the dress-pins which re-sisted the introduction of fibulae until the EIA102
Major changes took place in the whole Mediterranean around 1200 BC, most notably crisis and decline of the ar-chaic states of the East103. Facing the violent destruction of their homesteads104, many people fled to regions that105 seemed safer at this time, like Cyprus105, or the West106,where Sardinia was known to sailors due to sea routes andtrade. Thus, a situation of permanent culture contact was created on the island. Innovation and improvisation aremore intense in zones of culture contact and “hybrid cul-tures” resulting from the latter, be it due to migration, col-onisation or “entanglement”, can bring about the devel-opment of entirely new social and material creations107.The bronzetti are a part of this phenomenon, beingclearly of Sardinian origin, but incorporating archetypesand symbolism which are a part of a general Mediterra-nean religious ideology.
Cypriot figurines have been as-sumed to have inspired Sardinians108. But they are not sty-listically similar and figurine-output is much higher inSardinia.
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https://www.worldhistory.org/Etruscan_Art/
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Originally Posted by Kuivamaa
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I do like orchestral renditions of traditional songs toggle more depth plus the recordings are first class.
