Research Papers Relating to the Roman Empire

[Angela]

I thought it might be a good idea to create a thread where such papers could be posted, and thus easily found.

The first one concerns the diet of people in the Empire.
Diet and Class in Pompeii
http://popular-archaeology.com/issu...iets-of-the-middle-and-lower-class-in-pompeii

It's often been said that the Roman poorer classes consumed mainly a diet of porridge, something like polenta no doubt, and some vegetables and fruit. This low protein kind of diet would, it was assumed, account for the smaller size of the Roman legionairres compared, for example, to the warriors of the Germanic bands.

This paper seems to indicate that wasn't necessarily the case.

“The material from the drains revealed a range and quantity of materials to suggest a rather clear socio-economic distinction between the activities and consumption habits of each property, which were otherwise indistinguishable hospitality businesses,” says Ellis. Findings revealed foods that would have been inexpensive and widely available, such as grains, fruits, nuts, olives, lentils, local fish and chicken eggs, as well as minimal cuts of more expensive meat and salted fish from Spain. Waste from neighboring drains would also turn up less of a variety of foods, revealing a socioeconomic distinction between neighbors.

A drain from a central property revealed a richer variety of foods as well as imports from outside Italy, such as shellfish, sea urchin and even delicacies including the butchered leg joint of a giraffe.
“That the bone represents the height of exotic food is underscored by the fact that this is thought to be the only giraffe bone ever recorded from an archaeological excavation in Roman Italy,” says Ellis. “How part of the animal, butchered, came to be a kitchen scrap in a seemingly standard Pompeian restaurant not only speaks to long-distance trade in exotic and wild animals, but also something of the richness, variety and range of a non-elite diet.”

Deposits also included exotic and imported spices, some from as far away as Indonesia

 

[LeBrok]

I wonder if they (scientists) could tell if exotic food was transported live to destination, for lack of refrigeration back then, or they new ways to preserve it in sults and spices for longer trips, or maybe drying food was preferred form of preservation. Was sult expensive during this era in Roman Empire? If it was, the use of sult wouldn't be widespread for preservation.
Some exotic food might have come from arenas/circus animals. Why throw away good food after accidents during arena performance if restaurants would pay pretty money for it?

 

[Angela]

I wonder if they (scientists) could tell if exotic food was transported live to destination, for lack of refrigeration back then, or they new ways to preserve it in sults and spices for longer trips, or maybe drying food was preferred form of preservation. Was sult expensive during this era in Roman Empire? If it was, the use of sult wouldn't be widespread for preservation.
Some exotic food might have come from arenas/circus animals. Why throw away good food after accidents during arena performance if restaurants would pay pretty money for it?

I also thought the giraffe might have been an animal killed in the arena. They must have salted food, because the article says they imported salted fish from Spain...I immediately wondered if it was perhaps baccala, or salted cod. Didn't the Basques fish for cod? Or was it only the Northmen who fished and salted it for trade?

Even more interesting to me was the fact that even middle and lower class people had such a varied diet and seemingly consumed quite a bit of protein, especially if you consider that they probably consumed cheese as well.

I did wonder how they imported shellfish. The same thing occurred to me when I read somewhere that they found all these mollusk shells in the refuse in some Roman army camp in Britain. Those things spoil very quickly.

 

[Nobody1]

The standard opinion is of course that the Ancient-scholars are with the most limited knowledge of geography, only oral history and legend as a source - however once more those retarded Ancient-scholars are confirmed by Archeology;


The Romans crossed the Rhine and Danube into Magna Germania in the 3rd cen AD during the reigns of Caracalla (Antoninus) and Maximinus Thrax (Maximinus); As recorded in CassiusDio LXXVIII/XIII-XV and Herodian VII/II (as well as in the Historia Augusta);

CassiusDio - LXXVIII/XIII
Antoninus made a campaign against the Alamanni and whenever he saw a spot suitable for habitation, he would order, 'There let a fort be erected. There let a city be built'.

A true sensation was than the Archaeological discovery of a Roman campaign-site in Lower Saxony at Harzhorn in 2008-2012; Deep into Magna Germania (well far from Limes and Rhine);

The campaign-site is dated to the time-period of the 3rd cen AD (coinage of Severus Alexander); And could therefor correspond with the recorded episode of Maximinus (Thrax) by Herodian - an inscription at the site even confirmed the presence of the LEG IIII Flavia Felix (a Legion later honored as Maximiniana);

Herodian - VII/II
The Germans had left the plains and treeless areas and were hiding in the forests; they remained in the woods and marshes so that the battle would have to take place where the thick screen of trees made the missiles and javelins of their enemies ineffectual and where the depths of the marshes were dangerous to the Romans because of their unfamiliarity with the region. The Germans, on the contrary, were well acquainted with the terrain and knew which places provided firm footing and which were impassable.....As a result, most of the skirmishing occurred in those regions, and it was there that the emperor personally and very boldly joined battle. When the Germans rushed into a vast swamp in an effort to escape and the Romans hesitated to leap in after them in pursuit, Maximinus plunged into the marsh, though the water was deeper than his horse's belly; there he cut down the barbarians who opposed him. Then the rest of the army, ashamed to betray their emperor who was doing their fighting for them, took courage and leaped into the marsh behind him. A large number of men fell on both sides, but, while many Romans were killed, virtually the entire barbarian force was annihilated, and the emperor was the foremost man on the field.....This engagement and his own bravery Maximinus reported in dispatches to the senate and Roman people;

National Geographic 2010 - (in German)
http://www.nationalgeographic.de/reportagen/die-rache-der-roemer

Archaeologically Harzhorn illustrates a successful Roman campaign and Herodian describes a hard-fought victory in the marshes/swamps of inner Germania;
The ultimate failure of the Maximinus campaigns is described by Herodian as follows;

Herodion VII/II-III
II He threatened (and was determined) to defeat and subjugate the German nations as far as the ocean.....III his actions would have added to his reputation if he had not been much too ruthless and severe toward his associates and subjects. What profit was there in killing barbarians when greater slaughter occurred in Rome and the provinces? Or in carrying off booty captured from the enemy when he robbed his fellow countrymen of all their property?

These revived efforts in the 3rd cen AD ultimately failed for the most part due to the internal Roman struggle of that century; Lets not forget that Maximinus was ultimately killed in the Six Emperors Year (238 / i.e. 3 years after Harzhorn) and that year was one of the greatest internal Roman struggles followed by more crisis and usurpators (Imperium Galliarum/Palmyrene etc.); All in all future Archaeology will show as to how substantial the campaigns of Caracalla and Maximinus Thrax into Germania actually were;

 

[Aberdeen]

.................

I did wonder how they imported shellfish. The same thing occurred to me when I read somewhere that they found all these mollusk shells in the refuse in some Roman army camp in Britain. Those things spoil very quickly.

The shellfish could have been smoked and packed in brine, but were more likely imported live. Before the advent of supermarkets and refrigeration, a lot of people in eastern Canada used to keep live oysters in their basements over winter, in tanks of salt water. Someone told me that his father used to do that, and that he fed the oysters on oatmeal to keep them alive and healthy until they were wanted for the dinner table.

 

[hope]

The shellfish could have been smoked and packed in brine, but were more likely imported live. Before the advent of supermarkets and refrigeration, a lot of people in eastern Canada used to keep live oysters in their basements over winter, in tanks of salt water. Someone told me that his father used to do that, and that he fed the oysters on oatmeal to keep them alive and healthy until they were wanted for the dinner table.

Your point regarding people keeping live oysters Aberdeen, actually reminds me that the Romans kept ponds,both freshwater and salt water which they stocked with different types of fish. I am not sure if they would have kept oysters, but I don`t see why not. I suppose it depends on whether they used the ponds for ornament or aquaculture.
I also recall reading that Pliny spoke of the Romans packing oysters in ice for transportation, but I believe this is debated.
However for shorter distances, say inland, oysters may stay alive up to four weeks if the water is kept cool.
Angela did not state exactly which mollusk shells were found, so they may have been freshwater or land dwellers.

 

[hope]

I wonder if they (scientists) could tell if exotic food was transported live to destination, for lack of refrigeration back then, or they new ways to preserve it in sults and spices for longer trips, or maybe drying food was preferred form of preservation. Was sult expensive during this era in Roman Empire? If it was, the use of sult wouldn't be widespread for preservation.
Some exotic food might have come from arenas/circus animals. Why throw away good food after accidents during arena performance if restaurants would pay pretty money for it?

I think probably the exotic animals would have arrived living, LeBrok. Perhaps they came as showpieces primarily.
Regarding the expense of salt, I imagine the tax on it could be high , as with other spices, when the need arose ..say to fund campaigns etc, or lowered when it suited. We all know the story how Roman soldiers were given either salt itself, or money for the purpose of buying it.
I believe as a rule however, salt would likely have been expensive. Perhaps I am mistaken but I think I read somewhere the Greeks exchanged salt for slaves, I must check that however, perhaps I am recalling something altogether different.

 

[LeBrok]

I think probably the exotic animals would have arrived living, LeBrok. Perhaps they came as showpieces primarily.
Regarding the expense of salt, I imagine the tax on it could be high , as with other spices, when the need arose ..say to fund campaigns etc, or lowered when it suited. We all know the story how Roman soldiers were given either salt itself, or money for the purpose of buying it.

Hence "salary", IIRC.
Usually price of salt goes down with civilization development, to the point of being very inexpensive as right now. Considering achievements of Rome their salt might not been as expensive as later through medieval period. If it in fact wasn't too expensive it might have been used as food preservative and not only to improve taste of food at the table. That would have dramatically improved transportation of various foods through Roman Empire. Unfortunately I can't answer it at the moment.

 

[Angela]

Hence "salary", IIRC.
Usually price of salt goes down with civilization development, to the point of being very inexpensive as right now. Considering achievements of Rome their salt might not been as expensive as later through medieval period. If it in fact wasn't too expensive it might have been used as food preservative and not only to improve taste of food at the table. That would have dramatically improved transportation of various foods through Roman Empire. Unfortunately I can't answer it at the moment.

Well, some of the fish that the people of Pompeii were eating was salted fish from Spain, so it was obviously used commercially.

It never occurred to me that they would transport the fish and shellfish in barrels of water for example.

Clearly, the Romans liked fish, and shellfish. A chapter in this book deals with the diet of a camp in Roman Britain, and compares it to the diet of the locals, who apparently didn't take advantage of the marine sources in their own area.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en...hellfish consumption in Roman Britain&f=false

Strange how fish consumption seems to go in and out of fashion. The mesolithic peoples of Europe ate a great deal of it, and many of the early farmers ate very little. Now we have farmers in Britain eating very little of it, and the Romans both using natural sources and importing it.

 

[hope]

Well, some of the fish that the people of Pompeii were eating was salted fish from Spain, so it was obviously used commercially.

It certainly seems to have been used as one form to preserve food, yes. Also pickling and smoking would have been others.

It never occurred to me that they would transport the fish and shellfish in barrels of water for example.
Clearly, the Romans liked fish, and shellfish

.
They certainly did, Angela. Think of the mosaics featuring fish and octopus etc. It seems they liked to keep and breed various species in purpose made ponds. I believe they were partial to most mollusks also. Here is a link I found interesting.

http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=...dence for fish ponds in roman britain&f=false

 

[Angela]

It certainly seems to have been used as one form to preserve food, yes. Also pickling and smoking would have been others.

.
They certainly did, Angela. Think of the mosaics featuring fish and octopus etc. It seems they liked to keep and breed various species in purpose made ponds. I believe they were partial to most mollusks also. Here is a link I found interesting.

http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=...dence for fish ponds in roman britain&f=false

Very interesting excerpt! Thank-you.

All in all, they seemed to eat very well, one way or another, the army and the middle and lower classes too, as well as the upper classes.

The only thing I don't quite understand is all the garum on everything, although it is true that even in Italian cooking today, especially of fish, a sort of paste is sometimes made from salted anchovies which enriches the dish without actually making it taste like anchovies.

 

[hope]

The only thing I don't quite understand is all the garum on everything, although it is true that even in Italian cooking today, especially of fish, a sort of paste is sometimes made from salted anchovies which enriches the dish without actually making it taste like anchovies.

LOL..no I don`t much like the sound of garum either. However it would have been as commonplace in the kitchen then as tomato sauce [ketchup] is to-day.

 

[Angela]

Here's a not so charming paper about Ancient Rome.

There have apparently been a number of finds of burial grounds for newborns and even fetuses.

One of those burial grounds was found near a Roman area in Britain. There was some speculation that it might have been attached to a brothel, although later I remember seeing a paper that disputed that.

Well, now they've apparently tested the bones to see if there was a gender disparity...thinking perhaps that if it was related to a brothel they might have killed the males and let the females live.

Apparently, there's no disparity.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440313004470