History of Bulgaria

Ancient Foundations and Prehistoric Settlements

The territory of present-day Bulgaria has been inhabited since the Palaeolithic era, with evidence of human presence dating back to at least 40,000 years ago. Archaeological findings at the Kozarnika cave in northwest Bulgaria suggest even earlier habitation, possibly from 1.6 million years ago. This makes the region one of Europe's earliest human settlement areas.

The Neolithic period (6500-5000 BCE) saw the development of sophisticated agricultural communities in Bulgaria. The Karanovo culture, named after a tell settlement in southern Bulgaria, represents one of Europe's most important prehistoric cultures. These early farmers cultivated wheat and barley, domesticated animals, and created some of the earliest examples of European pottery and figurines.

Around 5000 BCE, the Varna culture emerged near the Black Sea coast. In 1972, archaeologists discovered the Varna Necropolis, containing the oldest gold treasure in the world, dating to 4600-4200 BCE. This remarkable find included over 3,000 gold artefacts weighing approximately 6 kilograms, demonstrating an advanced understanding of metallurgy and suggesting a complex hierarchical society.

The Chalcolithic (Copper Age) settlements at sites like Tell Yunatsite and Durankulak reveal sophisticated civilisations with two-storey houses, fortifications, and evidence of early writing systems. These cultures mysteriously collapsed around 4000 BCE, possibly due to climate change or invasions.

Thracian Civilisation

From approximately 1000 BCE, the lands of modern Bulgaria were primarily inhabited by the Thracians, an Indo-European group of tribes. The Greek historian Herodotus described them as "the second most numerous people in the world" after the Indians, though they never achieved political unity. Instead, they formed numerous tribal kingdoms.

Thracian culture reached its zenith between the 5th and 3rd centuries BCE. They were renowned for their horsemanship, metalworking skills, and religious practices. The Thracians worshipped deities such as Dionysus (whom they called Zagreus) and believed in immortality. The legendary musician Orpheus was said to be of Thracian origin.

Remarkable archaeological discoveries have illuminated Thracian culture. The Panagyurishte treasure, discovered in 1949, consists of nine solid gold vessels weighing over 6 kilograms. The Rogozen treasure, found in 1986, contains 165 silver vessels. Perhaps most impressive are the numerous Thracian tombs, such as the Kazanlak tomb with its remarkable frescoes and the Sveshtari tomb with its unique caryatids.

The Odrysian Kingdom, established around 480 BCE, became the most powerful Thracian state. Under King Sitalces (431-424 BCE), it extended from the Black Sea to the Aegean. Later, King Cotys I (384-359 BCE) further strengthened the kingdom through diplomatic marriages and alliances.

Greek, Macedonian, and Roman Influence

Greek colonisation of the Bulgarian Black Sea coast began in the 7th century BCE. Cities such as Apollonia Pontica (modern Sozopol), Mesembria (Nesebar), and Odessos (Varna) became important centres of Hellenic culture. These colonies maintained their Greek character while engaging in trade with the Thracian hinterland.

In 341 BCE, Philip II of Macedon conquered Thrace. His son, Alexander the Great, used Thrace as a launching point for his eastern campaigns. After Alexander's death, the region became contested between various Hellenistic kingdoms.

Roman conquest of the Bulgarian lands began in the 2nd century BCE and was completed by 45 CE when Emperor Claudius annexed Thrace as a province. The Romans built an extensive road network, including the Via Diagonalis connecting Constantinople with Central Europe. They established important cities such as Serdica (modern Sofia), Philippopolis (Plovdiv), and Trimontium (also Plovdiv).

During the Roman period, Christianity gradually spread throughout the region. The city of Serdica was particularly important in early Christian history. Emperor Constantine the Great was fond of the city, reportedly saying, "Serdica is my Rome." The Serdica Edict of 311, granting religious tolerance to Christians, was issued here.

Migration Period and Slavic Settlement

The decline of Roman power in the 4th and 5th centuries led to waves of barbarian invasions across the Balkans. Goths, Huns, Avars, and other nomadic peoples traversed the Bulgarian lands. The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire maintained nominal control, but its authority was increasingly challenged.

From the 6th century onwards, Slavic tribes began settling in the region. These agriculturalists gradually assimilated the remaining Thracian population. Unlike previous invaders, the Slavs came to stay, fundamentally changing the ethnic composition and linguistic landscape of the Balkans.

The First Bulgarian Empire (681-1018)

The foundation of the Bulgarian state is traditionally dated to 681 CE. A Turkic people called the Bulgars, led by Khan Asparuh, crossed the Danube River and defeated Byzantine Emperor Constantine IV. The subsequent peace treaty recognised Bulgarian control over the lands between the Danube and the Balkan Mountains. This marks the beginning of the First Bulgarian Empire and the establishment of the oldest European state that has not changed its name since its creation.

The early Bulgarian state was a dual entity, with the Bulgar elite ruling over a predominantly Slavic population. Khan Tervel (700-721) played a crucial role in European history when he helped Byzantine Emperor Justinian II regain his throne and later defeated the Arab siege of Constantinople in 717-718, effectively halting the Arab advance into Europe.

Khan Krum (803-814), known as "the Fearsome," significantly expanded Bulgarian territory, defeating the Avars and capturing Sofia from the Byzantines. He is famous for turning Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus I's skull into a drinking cup after defeating him in battle in 811. Krum also created Bulgaria's first written legal code, imposing severe punishments for theft and lying.

A pivotal moment in Bulgarian history came during the reign of Boris I (852-889). Seeking to unify his ethnically diverse realm and strengthen his position between Eastern and Western powers, Boris adopted Christianity in 864. After initially accepting the authority of Rome, he ultimately aligned Bulgaria with the Byzantine Orthodox Church, a decision with profound long-term consequences for Bulgarian culture and identity.

Boris's son, Simeon I (893-927), presided over Bulgaria's "Golden Age." A Byzantine-educated ruler, Simeon expanded Bulgarian territory to its greatest extent, reaching the Aegean, Black, and Adriatic Seas. He adopted the title "Tsar" (Caesar) and proclaimed himself "Emperor of all Bulgarians and Greeks." Under his patronage, literature, architecture, and art flourished. The Preslav Literary School and Ohrid Literary School became major cultural centres, producing translations of religious texts and original works.

During this period, Saints Cyril and Methodius created the Glagolitic alphabet, and their disciples later developed the Cyrillic script, named after Cyril. This writing system facilitated the spread of Christianity and education among the Slavic peoples and remains in use today across Eastern Europe and Central Asia.

The First Bulgarian Empire began to decline after Simeon's death. His son Peter I (927-969) maintained peace with Byzantium but faced internal challenges and invasions from the Magyars and Kievan Rus. In 971, Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimisces captured the Bulgarian capital Preslav. A western Bulgarian state continued under the Cometopuli dynasty, led by Samuel, who established a new capital at Ohrid.

Samuel (997-1014) waged determined resistance against Byzantine expansion but suffered a catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Kleidion in 1014. Emperor Basil II blinded 99 of every 100 captured Bulgarian soldiers, leaving one one-eyed man per group to lead the others home. Upon seeing his mutilated army, Samuel reportedly suffered a heart attack and died. By 1018, the entire Bulgarian state had fallen to Byzantine rule.

Byzantine Rule and the Second Bulgarian Empire (1018-1396)

For 167 years, Bulgaria remained under Byzantine control. The Bulgarian aristocracy was integrated into Byzantine society, while the Bulgarian Patriarchate was demoted to an archbishopric. However, Bulgarian identity persisted, and several rebellions occurred, notably those led by Peter Delyan (1040-1041) and Georgi Voyteh (1072).

In 1185, brothers Asen and Peter led a successful uprising, establishing the Second Bulgarian Empire with its capital at Tarnovo. The rebellion was sparked by increased Byzantine taxation to fund Emperor Isaac II Angelos's wedding to the Hungarian princess Margaret.

The Second Bulgarian Empire reached its zenith under Tsar Ivan Asen II (1218-1241). His victory at the Battle of Klokotnitsa in 1230 against the Despotate of Epirus made Bulgaria the dominant power in the Balkans. During his reign, the economy flourished, coinage was introduced, and Tarnovo became known as "the Third Rome" for its cultural and architectural splendour.

The Tarnovo Literary School emerged as an important cultural centre. Notable works from this period include the Manasses Chronicle, a beautifully illustrated history, and the Tarnovo Gospel, an exquisite example of medieval Bulgarian illuminated manuscripts. The architectural style known as the Tarnovo Artistic School produced impressive churches and monasteries, many adorned with distinctive ceramic decorations.

After Ivan Asen II's death, the empire gradually declined due to internal strife, Mongol invasions, and the rise of neighbouring Serbia. The 14th century saw Bulgaria fragment into competing realms: the Tsardom of Vidin under Ivan Sratsimir, the Tsardom of Tarnovo under Ivan Shishman, and the Despotate of Dobrudzha under Dobrotitsa.

Ottoman Rule (1396-1878)

The Ottoman Turks first crossed into Europe in 1352. By 1371, they had defeated a Serbian-led Christian army at the Battle of Maritsa. In 1393, Tarnovo fell after a three-month siege. The last Bulgarian stronghold, Vidin, surrendered in 1396, marking the end of medieval Bulgarian statehood.

Ottoman rule fundamentally transformed Bulgarian society. The Bulgarian nobility was largely eliminated, and the Bulgarian Patriarchate was abolished. The population was subjected to the Ottoman millet system, which organised subjects by religious affiliation rather than ethnicity. Christians faced various restrictions and paid higher taxes, including the devshirme or "blood tax," where Christian boys were periodically taken to serve in the Janissary corps.

Despite these hardships, certain aspects of Bulgarian culture were preserved, particularly in remote monasteries. The Rila Monastery, founded in the 10th century, became a repository of Bulgarian literature and traditions. Other important cultural centres included the Bachkovo Monastery and the Troyan Monastery.

Several rebellions against Ottoman rule occurred, though most were quickly suppressed. The Tarnovo Uprising of 1598, led by Theodor Ballina, and the Chiprovtsi Uprising of 1688 were notable attempts to restore Bulgarian independence. In 1688, the Austrians briefly liberated northwestern Bulgaria but were forced to withdraw, leading to brutal Ottoman reprisals against the local population.

The 18th century saw the beginning of the Bulgarian National Revival (Vazrazhdane). This cultural renaissance was characterised by a growing national consciousness, educational reform, and economic development. Paisius of Hilendar's "Slavonic-Bulgarian History" (1762) played a crucial role in awakening Bulgarian national identity by glorifying the medieval Bulgarian empires.

The 19th century brought significant economic changes. Bulgarian merchants, particularly in textile production, accumulated wealth and began funding schools and cultural institutions. The first secular Bulgarian school opened in Gabrovo in 1835. By the 1870s, a network of over 1,500 schools had been established throughout Bulgarian lands.

The struggle for an independent Bulgarian Church intensified during this period. In 1870, Sultan Abdülaziz issued a decree establishing the Bulgarian Exarchate, granting Bulgarians religious autonomy from the Greek-dominated Constantinople Patriarchate. This was a significant step toward national emancipation.

Revolutionary organisations began forming to fight for political independence. The Internal Revolutionary Organisation, founded by Vasil Levski, established a network of committees throughout Bulgaria. Levski, known as the "Apostle of Freedom," advocated for a democratic republic with equal rights for all ethnicities and religions. His capture and execution by Ottoman authorities in 1873 made him Bulgaria's most revered national hero.

The April Uprising of 1876, though ultimately unsuccessful, attracted international attention due to the Ottoman atrocities in suppressing it. In the town of Batak alone, approximately 5,000 Bulgarians were massacred. British journalist Januarius MacGahan's graphic reports of these events outraged European public opinion and contributed to Russia's decision to declare war on the Ottoman Empire in 1877.

Liberation and the Third Bulgarian State (1878-1908)

The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 resulted in Bulgarian liberation. Russian forces, aided by Bulgarian volunteers, defeated the Ottomans after fierce fighting at Shipka Pass and Pleven. The Treaty of San Stefano, signed on March 3 (now Bulgaria's national holiday), created a large Bulgarian state that included most of the Bulgarian-populated lands in the Balkans.

However, fearing Russian influence in the region, the Great Powers convened the Congress of Berlin, which drastically reduced Bulgaria's territory. The resulting Treaty of Berlin (1878) divided the San Stefano Bulgaria into three parts: a semi-autonomous Principality of Bulgaria, an autonomous province called Eastern Rumelia, and Macedonia, which remained under Ottoman rule. This partition, known as the "first national catastrophe," became a central grievance in Bulgarian politics for decades.

The Principality of Bulgaria adopted a democratic constitution in 1879, one of Europe's most progressive at the time. It guaranteed universal male suffrage, freedom of speech, and equality before the law. The first Bulgarian prince, Alexander of Battenberg, was elected the same year.

In 1885, a bloodless revolution in Eastern Rumelia led to its unification with the Principality. Serbia, concerned about this expansion, declared war but was defeated by Bulgarian forces at the Battle of Slivnitsa. The unification was internationally recognised, though Bulgaria remained nominally under Ottoman suzerainty.

Prince Alexander's pro-Russian policies led to his forced abdication in 1886. After a period of regency, Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was elected prince in 1887. Under his rule, Bulgaria pursued modernisation and industrialisation. The first railway line connecting Ruse and Varna had been built in 1866; by 1900, the network had expanded to over 1,500 kilometres.

Independence and the Balkan Wars (1908-1918)

Taking advantage of the Young Turk Revolution in the Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria declared full independence on September 22, 1908, with Ferdinand assuming the title of Tsar. This period saw significant cultural development. Ivan Vazov, considered Bulgaria's national poet, produced works like "Under the Yoke," depicting the struggle for liberation. Artists like Vladimir Dimitrov-Maystora developed a distinctive national style, while composers such as Pancho Vladigerov incorporated folk elements into classical compositions.

Bulgaria's primary foreign policy goal remained the liberation of Macedonian and Thracian Bulgarians still under Ottoman rule. In 1912, Bulgaria formed the Balkan League with Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro. The First Balkan War resulted in the Ottoman Empire's defeat and the liberation of most of its European territories.

Disputes over the division of Macedonia led to the Second Balkan War in 1913. Bulgaria attacked its former allies but was defeated when Romania and the Ottoman Empire joined the conflict. The Treaty of Bucharest forced Bulgaria to cede territories to all its neighbours, a outcome known as the "second national catastrophe."

World War I and Its Aftermath (1915-1941)

Seeking to revise the Treaty of Bucharest, Bulgaria entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers in 1915. Initial military successes included the occupation of Macedonia and advances into Romania. However, by 1918, the war had exhausted Bulgaria's resources. Following the breakthrough of Allied forces at the Macedonian Front, Bulgaria signed an armistice on September 29, 1918.

The Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine (1919) imposed harsh terms on Bulgaria. The country lost its Aegean coastline to Greece, Western Outlands to Yugoslavia, and Southern Dobruja to Romania. Bulgaria was also forced to pay heavy reparations and limit its army to 20,000 volunteers.

The post-war period was marked by political instability. In 1919, Agrarian Party leader Alexander Stamboliyski formed a government that implemented radical land reforms, breaking up large estates and distributing land to peasants. His anti-war stance and plans for a Balkan Federation alienated nationalists and the military, leading to his overthrow and brutal murder in 1923.

A period of authoritarian rule followed under the Democratic Alliance. In 1925, a communist-led attack on St. Nedelya Church in Sofia killed 150 people, mostly political and military elites, triggering severe government repression.

The Great Depression hit Bulgaria particularly hard, as agricultural prices collapsed. Political violence intensified between communist and fascist groups. In 1934, the military organisation Zveno staged a coup and established an authoritarian regime that banned political parties and centralised power.

In 1935, Tsar Boris III, who had succeeded Ferdinand after his abdication in 1918, reasserted royal authority. His regime maintained authoritarian control while implementing some modernisation policies. Under his rule, Bulgaria improved relations with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, which supported Bulgarian territorial claims.

World War II and Communist Takeover (1941-1947)

In March 1941, Bulgaria joined the Tripartite Pact, allowing German troops to pass through its territory for the invasion of Yugoslavia and Greece. In return, Bulgaria occupied Southern Dobruja, Macedonia, and Western Thrace, fulfilling its revisionist claims without initially engaging in combat.

Despite aligning with Nazi Germany, Bulgaria refused to deport its approximately 50,000 Jewish citizens to concentration camps, a notable exception in Nazi-dominated Europe. However, Jews in the occupied territories were deported, primarily from Thrace and Macedonia.

As the war progressed, the Bulgarian Communist Party organised a partisan resistance movement. Following the Soviet invasion of Romania, Bulgaria declared war on Germany on September 8, 1944. The Fatherland Front, a coalition dominated by communists, seized power the next day.

The Paris Peace Treaty of 1947 restored Bulgaria's pre-war borders, except for Southern Dobruja, which remained Bulgarian. Soviet occupation facilitated the communists' consolidation of power. Opposition leaders were executed or imprisoned in show trials, including agrarian leader Nikola Petkov, who was hanged in 1947. A referendum abolished the monarchy, and young Tsar Simeon II went into exile.

Communist Bulgaria (1947-1989)

The People's Republic of Bulgaria was proclaimed on September 15, 1946. Under communist leader Georgi Dimitrov, a new constitution modelled on the Soviet system was adopted in 1947. The economy was nationalised, and agriculture was collectivised, often through coercion.

Vulko Chervenkov, who succeeded Dimitrov after his death in 1949, implemented Stalinist policies, including purges of "enemies of the state." Labour camps were established, notably at Belene and Lovech, where thousands of political prisoners were interned.

After Stalin's death, Todor Zhivkov emerged as Bulgaria's leader, a position he would hold from 1954 to 1989, making him the longest-serving leader in the Eastern Bloc. Under Zhivkov, Bulgaria became the Soviet Union's most loyal satellite. His daughter Lyudmila Zhivkova, as chair of the Committee for Culture, promoted Bulgarian heritage and cultural exchange before her mysterious death in 1981.

The communist period saw rapid industrialisation and urbanisation. Heavy industry was developed, particularly metallurgy, machinery, and chemicals. The Kremikovtsi Metallurgical Complex near Sofia became a symbol of industrial achievement, though it later proved economically inefficient and environmentally damaging.

Education expanded dramatically, with literacy becoming nearly universal. The Academy of Sciences grew into a major research institution. Bulgarian computing technology achieved some success, with the Pravetz series of personal computers being produced from 1980 onwards.

In the 1970s and 1980s, Bulgaria developed a significant electronics industry, producing calculators, digital watches, and computer components. The country became the "Silicon Valley of the Eastern Bloc," exporting technology to other communist countries and some developing nations.

Bulgaria's foreign policy remained aligned with Moscow, though relations with neighbouring Yugoslavia were often tense due to the Macedonian question. Bulgaria maintained surprisingly good relations with Greece and Turkey despite being on opposite sides of the Cold War divide.

The late 1980s saw increasing economic difficulties as the inefficiencies of the planned economy became apparent. Foreign debt grew substantially. Environmental problems, particularly air pollution from outdated industrial facilities, sparked protests. The forced assimilation campaign against ethnic Turks, requiring them to adopt Slavic names, led to the exodus of over 300,000 Turks in 1989, damaging Bulgaria's international reputation.

Democratic Transition and European Integration (1989-Present)

The fall of communism in Eastern Europe in 1989 led to dramatic changes in Bulgaria. On November 10, 1989, Todor Zhivkov was ousted by reformist communists. This event, known as the "Gentle Revolution," marked the beginning of Bulgaria's transition to democracy and a market economy.

The first free elections since 1931 were held in June 1990, won by the reformed communist party, now called the Bulgarian Socialist Party. However, the country faced significant economic challenges during the transition. The collapse of the Soviet market and the Gulf War's impact on trade led to a severe economic crisis, with high inflation and unemployment.

In 1991, a new constitution was adopted, establishing Bulgaria as a parliamentary democracy. The 1990s saw a series of governments struggling with economic reforms and corruption. The currency board introduced in 1997 brought financial stability, pegging the Bulgarian lev to the Deutsche Mark (later the euro).

Bulgaria's foreign policy shifted towards integration with Western institutions. The country joined NATO in 2004 and the European Union in 2007. These memberships brought significant changes, including increased foreign investment, access to EU funds, and the need to implement reforms to meet EU standards.

Economic growth accelerated in the 2000s, with Bulgaria becoming an upper-middle-income country. The IT sector has grown significantly, with Sofia emerging as a tech hub. Tourism has also become a major contributor to the economy, with beach and ski resorts attracting millions of visitors annually.

However, challenges remain. Corruption and organised crime continue to be significant issues. Bulgaria consistently ranks as one of the poorest and most corrupt EU member states. Demographic decline due to low birth rates and emigration poses long-term economic and social challenges.

In recent years, Bulgaria has faced political instability, with several elections held in quick succession due to the inability to form stable governments. The country has also grappled with issues such as judicial reform, media freedom, and the integration of its Roma minority.

Despite these challenges, Bulgaria has made significant progress since 1989. It has maintained a functioning democracy, developed a market economy, and integrated into Euro-Atlantic structures. The country continues to work towards overcoming its communist legacy and fully realising its potential within the European Union.

Cultural Achievements and Notable Bulgarians

Throughout its history, Bulgaria has made significant contributions to world culture and produced many notable individuals:

• John Atanasoff, of Bulgarian descent, is credited with inventing the first electronic digital computer.
• Christo and Jeanne-Claude, famous for their environmental works of art, including wrapping the Reichstag in Berlin.
• Julia Kristeva, a renowned philosopher, literary critic, and feminist.
• Tzvetan Todorov, an influential literary theorist and historian.
• Elias Canetti, Nobel Prize-winning author, born in Bulgaria.
• Boris Christoff and Nicolai Ghiaurov, world-famous opera singers.
• Veselin Topalov, chess grandmaster and former world champion.
• Hristo Stoichkov, one of the greatest Bulgarian footballers, who played for Barcelona.

Bulgaria is also known for its folk music, particularly the haunting female vocal choirs. The Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir's album "Le Mystère des Voix Bulgares" won a Grammy Award and brought international attention to this unique musical tradition.

Conclusion

Bulgaria's history is a tapestry of ancient civilisations, medieval empires, foreign domination, and modern nation-building. From Thracian tombs to communist-era monuments, the country's landscape is a testament to its rich and complex past. As Bulgaria continues to navigate the challenges of the 21st century, it does so with a deep cultural heritage and a resilient national spirit forged through centuries of triumph and adversity.

History of European Countries