History of Hungary

Prehistoric and Ancient Period

Archaeological evidence suggests human habitation in the Carpathian Basin dates back to approximately 500,000 years ago. The region that would become Hungary was inhabited by various peoples throughout prehistory, including Celts, Illyrians, and Dacians. The Roman Empire established the province of Pannonia in the western part of present-day Hungary around 10 CE, bringing Roman civilisation, infrastructure, and culture. Notable Roman settlements included Aquincum (now part of Budapest), Sopianae (Pécs), and Savaria (Szombathely).

The Roman period left a significant legacy in Hungary, with remains of amphitheatres, baths, and villas still visible today. Particularly notable are the Early Christian Necropolis of Pécs, now a UNESCO World Heritage site, featuring decorated burial chambers from the 4th century.

Following the collapse of Roman authority, the Carpathian Basin witnessed successive waves of migration during the period known as the Great Migration. The Huns, led by Attila, established a powerful but short-lived empire in the region during the 5th century. They were followed by Germanic tribes, Avars, and Slavic peoples.

Magyar Conquest and the Árpád Dynasty

The history of Hungary as a distinct entity begins with the arrival of the Magyar tribes, led by Árpád, in the Carpathian Basin around 895-896 CE. This event, known as the "Honfoglalás" (Conquest of the Homeland), is a pivotal moment in Hungarian national identity. The Magyars, a Finno-Ugric people originally from the Ural region, had migrated westward over several centuries.

Initially, the Magyar tribes conducted raids throughout Western Europe, earning a fearsome reputation. Their defeat at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 by Otto I of Germany marked the end of these raids and prompted the Magyars to settle permanently in the Carpathian Basin.

Géza, the great-grandson of Árpád, began the process of centralising authority and adopting Christianity in the late 10th century. His son, Vajk, was baptised as Stephen and crowned as the first King of Hungary on Christmas Day in 1000 CE, with a crown sent by Pope Sylvester II. As King Stephen I (later canonised as Saint Stephen), he established a Christian monarchy, created a system of counties (vármegyék), and organised the Catholic Church in Hungary with ten bishoprics.

The Árpád dynasty ruled Hungary until 1301. Notable rulers included:

• Ladislaus I (1077-1095), later canonised, who conquered Croatia and established strong royal authority
• Coloman the Learned (1095-1116), known for his progressive laws and administrative reforms
• Béla III (1172-1196), who introduced French administrative techniques and promoted record-keeping
• Andrew II (1205-1235), who issued the Golden Bull of 1222, a charter similar to England's Magna Carta that limited royal power
• Béla IV (1235-1270), who rebuilt the country after the devastating Mongol invasion of 1241-1242

The Mongol invasion, known in Hungary as the Tatárjárás, was one of the most traumatic events in medieval Hungarian history. An estimated 15-25% of the population perished, with entire regions depopulated. In response, Béla IV initiated a massive castle-building programme and encouraged urban development.

Angevin and Hunyadi Periods

After the extinction of the Árpád dynasty in 1301, Hungary entered a period of dynastic struggles. Charles Robert of Anjou (1308-1342) eventually secured the throne, establishing the Angevin dynasty in Hungary. He reformed the economy, introducing gold and silver mining reforms and a stable currency called the forint (which remains Hungary's currency to this day).

His son, Louis I the Great (1342-1382), expanded Hungarian influence, briefly uniting Hungary and Poland under his rule. During his reign, Hungary reached its greatest territorial extent, stretching from the Baltic to the Adriatic. Louis founded Hungary's first university in Pécs in 1367 and promoted Gothic architecture throughout the kingdom.

After another period of instability, Sigismund of Luxembourg (1387-1437), who was also Holy Roman Emperor, brought Hungary into European politics. He established the Order of the Dragon, a chivalric order dedicated to fighting the Ottoman Turks, who were becoming an increasing threat to Hungary's southern borders.

The 15th century saw the rise of János Hunyadi, a talented military commander who successfully fought against the Ottomans. His victory at Belgrade in 1456 halted Ottoman expansion for decades. His son, Matthias Corvinus (1458-1490), became one of Hungary's most celebrated kings.

Matthias Corvinus established a professional standing army (the Black Army), conquered Vienna and parts of Austria, and made Hungary a cultural centre of Renaissance Europe. His library, the Bibliotheca Corviniana, was one of the largest collections of books in Europe outside the Vatican. Matthias patronised Italian humanists and artists, built in Renaissance style, and reformed the legal system. His court in Buda became a centre of humanist culture and Renaissance art.

Ottoman Era and the Tripartite Division

The death of Matthias without a legitimate heir led to a weakening of central authority. Under the Jagiellonian kings, the power of the nobility increased at the expense of the crown. Meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire continued to press against Hungary's southern frontier.

The catastrophic Battle of Mohács on 29 August 1526 marked a turning point in Hungarian history. The young king Louis II and much of the Hungarian nobility perished in the battle against the forces of Suleiman the Magnificent. This defeat effectively ended Hungary's independence for centuries.

Following Mohács, Hungary was divided into three parts:

1. Royal Hungary in the north and west, ruled by the Habsburg Ferdinand I, who claimed the throne through his marriage to the sister of Louis II
2. Central Hungary, including Buda, which became an Ottoman province
3. The Eastern Hungarian Kingdom, which evolved into the semi-independent Principality of Transylvania under Ottoman suzerainty

This tripartite division lasted for over 150 years. In Ottoman Hungary, the population declined dramatically due to warfare, deportations, and emigration. Many towns were destroyed, and large areas were depopulated. The Ottomans built mosques, baths, and other Islamic structures in occupied towns, some of which survive today, particularly in Pécs.

Royal Hungary became a battleground between Habsburg and Ottoman forces. The border fortress system, including castles like Eger and Szigetvár, became symbols of Hungarian resistance. The heroic defence of Szigetvár in 1566 by Miklós Zrínyi, immortalised in literature, temporarily halted Suleiman's last campaign.

Transylvania, under princes like János Zápolya, István Báthory (who also became King of Poland), and Gábor Bethlen, maintained a precarious independence by balancing between the Habsburgs and Ottomans. Transylvania experienced a cultural golden age, particularly under Bethlen, who founded the Academy of Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia) and made his court a centre of Protestant culture.

Habsburg Rule and National Awakening

The tide began to turn against the Ottomans in the late 17th century. The failed Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1683 prompted the formation of the Holy League, which included the Habsburg Empire. In 1686, a multinational Christian army recaptured Buda after 145 years of Ottoman rule.

By the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699, the Ottomans ceded nearly all of Hungary to the Habsburgs. Transylvania, while nominally autonomous, also came under Habsburg control. The 18th century saw large-scale reconstruction and repopulation of devastated areas. The Habsburgs encouraged German, Serbian, and Romanian settlement in depopulated regions, significantly altering Hungary's ethnic composition.

Habsburg rule brought modernisation but also attempts at centralisation and Germanisation. Resistance to Habsburg policies took various forms, including the Rákóczi War of Independence (1703-1711) led by Ferenc Rákóczi II, which ended in compromise. The 18th century also saw the spread of Enlightenment ideas in Hungary, particularly during the reign of Joseph II (1780-1790), whose reforms, while progressive, provoked nationalist opposition due to their centralising nature.

The late 18th and early 19th centuries witnessed the Hungarian national awakening, known as the Reform Era. Count István Széchenyi, the "Greatest Hungarian," promoted modernisation through works like the Chain Bridge in Budapest, the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, and the National Casino. He also reformed agriculture and transportation, introducing steamboats on the Danube and supporting railway construction.

Lajos Kossuth emerged as a more radical voice, advocating for Hungarian autonomy within the Habsburg Empire. The period saw a flourishing of Hungarian literature and culture, with writers like Mihály Vörösmarty, József Katona, and Ferenc Kölcsey (who wrote the national anthem, "Himnusz") creating works that strengthened national identity.

Revolution and Compromise

The European Revolutions of 1848 sparked a Hungarian Revolution on 15 March, led by young radicals including the poet Sándor Petőfi. The "12 Points" demanded civil liberties, equality before the law, and greater autonomy for Hungary. Initially successful, the revolution resulted in the April Laws, which established a Hungarian government responsible to a parliament elected by limited suffrage.

Tensions with other nationalities within Hungary and with the Habsburg court led to armed conflict. After initial Hungarian successes under generals like Artúr Görgey, the Habsburgs called on Russian assistance. The Hungarian forces surrendered at Világos in August 1849, followed by harsh repression including the execution of 13 generals at Arad, known as the "13 Martyrs of Arad."

The period of neo-absolutism under Emperor Franz Joseph lasted until Austria's military defeats in Italy prompted a reconsideration of policy. Negotiations led by Ferenc Deák resulted in the Compromise (Ausgleich) of 1867, establishing the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Hungary gained internal self-government, with a separate parliament and government, while sharing a monarch, foreign policy, and military with Austria.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire

The period between 1867 and 1914 was one of rapid modernisation and economic growth. Budapest, formed in 1873 by the unification of Buda, Pest, and Óbuda, developed into a major European capital. Impressive buildings from this era include the Parliament, the Opera House, and Fisherman's Bastion.

Industrialisation accelerated, with particular growth in food processing, engineering, and electrical industries. The railway network expanded dramatically, connecting Hungary to European markets. The Millennium celebrations of 1896, marking 1,000 years since the Magyar conquest, showcased Hungary's achievements with exhibitions and new public buildings.

Prime Minister Kálmán Tisza dominated Hungarian politics from 1875 to 1890, overseeing economic development but also controversial policies of Magyarisation towards ethnic minorities, who constituted nearly half the population. These policies, which included restricting minority language education and requiring knowledge of Hungarian for government positions, created tensions that would later contribute to the empire's dissolution.

Despite economic progress, social problems persisted. Large estates dominated agriculture, leaving many peasants landless. Emigration, primarily to the United States, reached significant levels, with approximately 1.5 million Hungarians emigrating between 1890 and 1914.

World War I and Its Aftermath

Hungary entered World War I as part of Austria-Hungary in 1914. Initially supportive of the war, the Hungarian public grew increasingly disillusioned as casualties mounted and economic conditions deteriorated. By 1918, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was disintegrating along national lines.

On 31 October 1918, the "Aster Revolution" brought the liberal Count Mihály Károlyi to power. He declared Hungary an independent republic on 16 November. Károlyi's government faced enormous challenges: returning soldiers, food shortages, and territorial claims by neighbouring states. The Allies treated Hungary as a defeated power and permitted Romanian, Czechoslovak, and Yugoslav forces to occupy parts of the country.

Unable to resist these pressures, Károlyi resigned in March 1919. Power was seized by communists led by Béla Kun, who established the Hungarian Soviet Republic. This regime implemented radical social policies but faced internal opposition and external threats. After 133 days, it collapsed as Romanian forces occupied Budapest in August 1919.

A counterrevolutionary government under Admiral Miklós Horthy established control. On 4 June 1920, Hungary signed the Treaty of Trianon, which reduced the country to approximately one-third of its pre-war territory and population. Hungary lost 71% of its territory and 58% of its population to neighbouring countries. Approximately one-third of ethnic Hungarians found themselves living outside the new borders, creating a trauma that would influence Hungarian politics for decades.

Interwar Period and World War II

The interwar period in Hungary was dominated by the regency of Miklós Horthy, who served as regent for the vacant throne. The early 1920s saw political instability and economic crisis, including hyperinflation. Prime Minister István Bethlen (1921-1931) brought a measure of stability, securing a League of Nations loan that stabilised the currency and economy.

Politically, the regime was conservative and nationalist, with limited democracy. Anti-Semitism was present in legislation like the 1920 Numerus Clausus law, which restricted Jewish university attendance. Revisionism—the desire to revise the Treaty of Trianon and recover lost territories—dominated foreign policy.

The Great Depression hit Hungary severely, leading to increased political polarisation. Prime Minister Gyula Gömbös (1932-1936) moved Hungary closer to Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. His successors, including Kálmán Darányi and Pál Teleki, continued this alignment while trying to maintain some independence.

This alignment yielded territorial gains: parts of southern Slovakia through the First Vienna Award (1938), Carpathian Ruthenia (1939), northern Transylvania through the Second Vienna Award (1940), and parts of Yugoslavia (1941). These revisions came at the price of increasing dependence on the Axis powers.

Hungary joined Germany in the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. Hungarian forces suffered heavy losses, particularly at the Don River in 1942-1943, where approximately 120,000 soldiers died or were captured.

As the war turned against the Axis, Hungary attempted to negotiate a separate peace. In response, Germany occupied Hungary in March 1944. The occupation brought the Holocaust to Hungary, which had previously protected its Jewish population despite discriminatory laws. Between May and July 1944, over 400,000 Hungarian Jews were deported to Auschwitz, most perishing there.

In October 1944, Horthy announced an armistice with the Allies but was immediately overthrown by the Germans, who installed the fascist Arrow Cross Party under Ferenc Szálasi. The Arrow Cross regime continued deportations and committed atrocities against Jews in Budapest.

Soviet forces captured Budapest in February 1945 after a devastating siege. The war left Hungary in ruins, with approximately 600,000 Hungarian deaths (including 450,000 Jews), destroyed infrastructure, and massive Soviet looting.

Communist Era

A provisional government was formed in Debrecen in December 1944 under Soviet auspices. The 1945 elections gave a majority to the Smallholders' Party, but the Soviet-backed Hungarian Communist Party, led by Mátyás Rákosi, gradually consolidated power through what Rákosi himself called "salami tactics"—eliminating opposition slice by slice.

By 1948, Hungary had become a one-party state under communist control. The economy was nationalised, agriculture collectivised, and political opposition suppressed. The regime conducted show trials, including that of László Rajk, a prominent communist executed in 1949. Religious institutions faced persecution, exemplified by the imprisonment of Cardinal József Mindszenty.

Rákosi's Stalinist regime implemented Soviet-style industrialisation, focusing on heavy industry regardless of Hungary's resources or needs. Living standards declined, and shortages became common. Following Stalin's death in 1953, Imre Nagy became prime minister and implemented a "New Course" with economic reforms and political relaxation.

Rákosi regained power in 1955, but growing discontent culminated in the 1956 Revolution. On 23 October, a student demonstration in Budapest evolved into a nationwide uprising against Soviet domination. Nagy returned as prime minister, declared Hungary's neutrality, and announced withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact.

Soviet forces intervened on 4 November, crushing the revolution with tanks. Approximately 2,500 Hungarians died in the fighting, and 200,000 fled the country. Nagy was executed in 1958 after a secret trial. János Kádár, who had initially supported the revolution before switching sides, became Hungary's leader.

Kádár's regime initially implemented harsh repression but gradually introduced a more pragmatic approach known as "Goulash Communism." The 1968 New Economic Mechanism introduced limited market elements into the planned economy. Consumer goods became more available, and Hungarians enjoyed greater freedom than citizens of most other Eastern Bloc countries, earning Hungary the nickname "the happiest barracks in the socialist camp."

Despite these reforms, Hungary remained a one-party state with limited political freedoms. Economic problems mounted in the 1980s as Hungary accumulated foreign debt. Dissent grew, with samizdat (underground) publications and emerging opposition groups like the democratic opposition and populist writers.

Democratic Transition and Contemporary Hungary

By the late 1980s, reformist communists like Imre Pozsgay gained influence within the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party. In 1988, Kádár was removed from power, and the party began negotiations with opposition groups. On 23 October 1989, the Hungarian Republic was proclaimed, ending the communist People's Republic.

The first free elections since 1945 were held in 1990, bringing the Hungarian Democratic Forum to power under József Antall. Hungary embarked on a transition to democracy and a market economy. The transition brought political freedom but also economic hardship, including high unemployment and inflation.

Successive governments implemented economic reforms and privatisation. The Hungarian Socialist Party (the reformed communist party) won the 1994 elections under Gyula Horn, who continued market reforms while introducing austerity measures. Viktor Orbán's first government (1998-2002) accelerated Hungary's integration into Western institutions.

Hungary joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004. The country adopted the Schengen Agreement in 2007, eliminating border controls with other participating European countries.

The 2008 global financial crisis hit Hungary particularly hard due to high levels of foreign currency debt. The country required an IMF bailout and implemented austerity measures. Political polarisation increased, with Fidesz winning a two-thirds parliamentary majority in 2010 under Viktor Orbán, who returned as prime minister.

Orbán's government implemented a new constitution and numerous institutional reforms, which critics argue have weakened checks and balances. Hungary has experienced tensions with EU institutions over issues including media freedom, judicial independence, and migration policy.

Cultural Heritage and Contributions

Hungary has made significant contributions to world culture, science, and sports throughout its history.

Science and Innovation

Hungarian scientists and inventors have made remarkable contributions globally:

• János Bolyai developed non-Euclidean geometry independently of Nikolai Lobachevsky
• Loránd Eötvös conducted fundamental research on gravity, developing the Eötvös torsion balance
• John von Neumann made foundational contributions to quantum physics, functional analysis, computer science, economics, and game theory
• Edward Teller led the development of the hydrogen bomb
• Eugene Wigner received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on nuclear physics
• Dennis Gabor invented holography, receiving the Nobel Prize in Physics
• Albert Szent-Györgyi discovered vitamin C, receiving the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
• Georg von Békésy received the Nobel Prize for his research on the function of the cochlea

Hungarian inventions include the Rubik's Cube (Ernő Rubik), the ballpoint pen (László Bíró), the carburetor (Donát Bánki and János Csonka), the match (János Irinyi), the electric transformer (Ottó Bláthy, Miksa Déri, and Károly Zipernowsky), and the Ford Model T transmission (József Galamb).

Arts and Literature

Hungarian literature has a rich tradition, with notable figures including:

• Sándor Petőfi, the national poet who died in the 1848 Revolution
• János Arany, known for his narrative poems based on Hungarian folklore
• Imre Madách, author of "The Tragedy of Man," a dramatic poem exploring human history
• Endre Ady, a modernist poet who revolutionised Hungarian poetry
• Attila József, one of the greatest 20th-century Hungarian poets
• Sándor Márai, whose novel "Embers" has been translated into numerous languages
• Imre Kertész, who received the Nobel Prize in Literature for his works on the Holocaust

Hungarian music is represented by composers like Ferenc Liszt, Béla Bartók, and Zoltán Kodály, who collected and incorporated folk music into classical compositions. Hungary has produced renowned classical musicians including conductors

History of European Countries