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Illyrian-Albanian Continuity

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Scientists write there is not a definite agreement that Albanian is satem or centum. Fits perfectly in both.
There are eastern scientists who are politically motivated who are stirring the debate which is perfectly legitimate.
There are not scientists who dispute Illyrian origin of Albanians. ( With the exception of Slav pseudo scientists.)

Be some more objective. There are no agreement between scientists who are Illyrians, and there are more theories.

For example you can read that Bosnians are Illyrians, my friends Bosnians find it is proven, there are the book from British author (not how you say Slav pseudo scientists what it is not to comment because it is offense to say at least).

Profesor John Wilkes of University of London
The Illyrians
Willey, 1996

http://books.google.be/books?id=iOW...kqzODw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1


...
There is science work about Bosnian Illyrians:

Illyrian Bosnia and Herzegovina - an overview of a cultural legacy

Ardyan Adzanela

http://www.academia.edu/2490281/Cul...y_Ancient_Illyrians_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina

...
There will be new scientific findings, but in Bosnia scientists find evidence for their conclusions.

Science takes a lot of findings to agree diced.

I would like that Bosnians take part in this thread, or open a new topic. There are a lot of forums where they give strong arguments. It would be good to discuss and we in this forum gain new approaches.
 
You must give objective evidence otherwise it is empty talk.

Agree. Albanians are being so annoying with their hypothesis of their language being descendant of Illyrian, yet I have not seen one single example for years.


Scientists write there is not a definite agreement that Albanian is satem or centum. Fits perfectly in both.
There are eastern scientists who are politically motivated who are stirring the debate which is perfectly legitimate.
There are not scientists who dispute Illyrian origin of Albanians. ( With the exception of Slav pseudo scientists.)

This is nonsense. There is not one single science paper that proved Illyrian origin of Albanians. If there is please give us a link?


So, Centum theory does not really hold watter because it is based only on Venetic for which we are not even sure if it was Illyrian.

As I recall, we are not even sure if Illyrian was Illyrian.
 
Be some more objective. There are no agreement between scientists who are Illyrians, and there are more theories.

For example you can read that Bosnians are Illyrians, my friends Bosnians find it is proven, there are the book from British author (not how you say Slav pseudo scientists what it is not to comment because it is offense to say at least).

Profesor John Wilkes of University of London
The Illyrians
Willey, 1996

http://books.google.be/books?id=iOW...kqzODw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1


...
There is science work about Bosnian Illyrians:

Illyrian Bosnia and Herzegovina - an overview of a cultural legacy

Ardyan Adzanela

http://www.academia.edu/2490281/Cul...y_Ancient_Illyrians_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina

...
There will be new scientific findings, but in Bosnia scientists find evidence for their conclusions.

Science takes a lot of findings to agree diced.

I would like that Bosnians take part in this thread, or open a new topic. There are a lot of forums where they give strong arguments. It would be good to discuss and we in this forum gain new approaches.

Bosnians are partly Illyrian. So are Croats, Serbs and Macedonians. They absorbed the Illyrian population that was there at the time of their arrival.
It's a shame you are doubting Bosnian's Hecegovina's Slavic heritage. I can't explain why the language Bosnians and Croats are speaking sounds Illyrian to you? Just because they sit in Albanian lands/
I could be pockets where the population is originally Illyrian even though its very unlikely.
But the difference is Albanians are fully Illyrian descendants.
Even though there is any written document that says Albanians are Illyrians from the facts on the ground.
Its widely accepted that the mantle of the Earth is molted. Nobody has been there to verify but the fact that there are volcanoes make the observation credible.
Same thing Albanian language and Toponims are hard facts. you don't wan't to accept them. What can we do?
Keep believing what you want to believe!
 
So, Centum theory does not really hold watter because it is based only on Venetic for which we are not even sure if it was Illyrian.

Venetic script is from late bronze age, it was borrowed from Euganei script which is part of raetic script which forms part of the scripts of the alps, incorporating east-raetic, west-raetic and camunic scripts.

liburnian script is similar to venetic

All these above, after 450BC gained some celtic/gallic script into them

There is no illyrian script............there has never been found any todate
 
You might be right you know! I immediatly had the impression that some here are too biased to see from the other's perspective.

I would not call it bias, I call it lack of ancient facts presented by albanians who claim this or that.

All I know is from the time that the Romans took modern Albainia from the macedonian empire to 150AD , no mention of albanians have been recorded by Roman governors nor the hundreds of surveyors who scoured the land looking for mines.
From 150 AD we have a scribe from Alexandria who mentions a town called related to some Albania, but nothing after that for another 600 plus years.

now tell me , why should anyone believe these fabricated stories from albanians
 
There is nothin conclusive regarding centum vs satem, so please try to be more objective.

In the absence of sufficient lexical data and texts written in the Illyrian languages, the theories supporting the Centumcharacter of the Illyrian language have been based mainly on the Centum character of the Venetic language, which was thought to be related to Illyrian, in particular regarding Illyrian toponyms and names such as Vescleves, Acrabanus, Gentius, Clausal etc.[10] The relation between Venetic and Illyrian was later discredited and they are no longer considered closely related.[11]
Scholars supporting the Satem character of the Illyrian languages highlight particular toponyms and personal names such as Asamum, Birzinimum Zanatis etc. in which these scholars claim that there is clear evidence of the Satem character of the Illyrian language. They also point to other toponyms including Osseriates derived from /*eghero/ (lake)[12] or Birziminium from PIE /*bherǵh/[13] or Asamum from PIE /*aḱ-mo/ (sharp).[14][15]



the association ( if there is any )of the centrum language of venetic and illyrian is
1. neither are balkan languages ...........venetic being part of the raetic group and "illyrian" ( if there was any such language ), having its origins in modern east austria and hungaria. they are neighbours

2. the balkan language of albania was ...........Doric in the late bronze-age, then epirote and lastly macedonian from 400BC ............there never was illyrian as latin language took over from macedonian from the 1st century BC
 
ALBANIANS (SHQIPTARS) and their language are an artificial creation.




Settlement of Albanians in Macedonia



Historical evidence shows that the first Albanians in Macedonia began to migrate even more intense after the mid-18th century.

According to the Ottoman census of year 1430-1431, in Macedonia there was Albanians. Already by the mid-15th century, with the conversion of Albanians in a minority they started coming in Macedonia as Turkish soldiers and mercenaries, but in a very minor number. The Ottoman census of year 1452-1453 are only 32 Albanian families recorded on the territory of Macedonia, 31 family vilayet Kalkandelen (nest) and 1 Catholic family in Skopje. These Albanians have mostly been Islamized and Ottoman authorities blaming as ARNAUTS or Arbanasi, as could differ from indigenous. The census in notepads, Ottomans personal names Albanians added the "Arbanasi" or "Arnaut" to distinguish them from the natives, that there were no adjectives for nationality.

Ottoman census of year 1467-1468, the notes only 84 Albanian households on the territory of Macedonia and recesses in the following:

Census year 1467-1468

Vilayet Kalkandelen (nest) 20 households
Vilayet USKUP (Skopje) 2 households
Vilayet Pirlepe (Prilep) 10 households
Vilayet Kjiprjuli (Veles) 3 households
Nahiya Krchovo (Kicevo) 7 households
Nahiya Mariovo 1 household
Nahiya Manastir (Bitola) 41 household

Source: TDIMN. ODM, t. III, p. 35-143 (Vilayet Kalkandelen), p. 150; TDIMN. ODM, t. I, p. 197-199; TDIMN. ODM, t. II, s.139-271 (nahiя Monastery), p. 271-485

The first six Albanian villages in Macedonia

Albanians came to the borders of Macedonia in year 1572. Frenchman Philippe Kanaje described the capture of Kačanik by some as personally wrote "Albanian groups of killers and thieves" in year 1572.

(Frankish Travel to the Balkans, s.140).

In year 1595 for the first time in recorded history a den of Albanian gang robbed a few Poloski villages and many villagers wounded and killed.

(J. Trifunoski, nest, p. 38).

Under Ottoman document from year 1597, about 10,000 Albanian-robbers of northern Albania, robbed and burned 27 villages in western Macedonia, and in 6 of these villages, in Debar area, settled Albanians for the first time in Macedonia.

(Sopova, MD. Quoted. Sъch., P. 83).

So, the first settlement of Albanians in a Macedonian village occured 3 years before the 17th century and it was in the Debar.

Albanian settlement in Skopje area

The Ottoman document from year 1595 first noted the presence of "predatory arnaut groups" in the Skopje area, but no Albanian settlement.

(Sopova, MD. Quoted. Sъch., P. 78-79)

Albanians began to gradually conquer the high mountain villages of Macedonia Skopje Montenegro, even at the end of the 17th century.

(Materials, 536. / "ARNAUTS" Vasil Kъnchov, "Makedoniя. Etnografiя and statistics" (v. 11 cards), published Bъlgarskoto Literary druzhestva c Sofia, 1900 Chastna pъrva. Peoples c Makedoniя. Arnauts., P. 83-100 ).

Albanians first occupied the highest villages in Skopje Macedonian Montenegro area and then gradually got down to the lower villages. The village of Brest was until the 19th century pure Macedonian village and in the village Luboten Albanians entered in the late 18th century.

(Vasil Kъnchov, "Makedoniя. Etnografiя and statistics" Chastna pъrva.Narodi c Makedoniя. Arnauts., P. 83-100).

German traveler Han in the second half of the 19th century visited the Albanian villages in Skopje Montenegro area. The Albanians themselves informed that they moved in Skopje northern mountains after Austrian wars, and that's the end of the 17th century.

(Hahn, Reise von Belgrad nach Salonik, Wien, 1868th p. 70).

By the 20th century, the flower Black Peak settled Albanians in 21 Macedonian villages. They came from Kosovo during the 18th and 19th centuries, and residents of Aldinci know that their ancestors came to Aldinci of Gnjilane.

(Material, p. 523rd / Vasil Kъnchov, "Makedoniя. Etnografiя and statistics" Chastna pъrva. Peoples c Makedoniя. Arnauts., P. 83-100).

The first field units Albanians descended even into the 19th century, during the management of Hamza Pasha, an Albanian, who gradually settled Albanians of northern Albania.

(J. Trifunoski, Skopje Polje, 358).

Albanian settlement of Nest

Early Albanian settlement that occupied the Nest, started from the middle of the 18th century. However, at that time they were a very small minority group in the Nest, Until the first half of the 19th century, when the Nest was Albanian ruled by Abdurrahman Pasha, was violently and mass inhabited by Albanians from northern Albania.

(J. Trifunoski, nest, s. 71-74)

Much of the indigenous Macedonian population in Nest, was violently albanized, whole generation were albanized, and many women and girls under the pressure of Tetovo Albanian pashas and their oppression.

(J. Trifunoski, nest, p. 38-39, 50-51)

The same happened with Kichevija, where most of them are actually of Albanian Macedonian origin. Therefore, we can say that the Albanians in Macedonia are Macedonian brothers.

Albanians from s. Tearce were inhabited by the Tetovo pashas, ​​the Mat, Lower Debar and Prizren, the Albanians.from s Dobroshte came from Debar and Luma. In s.Dlabochica, s.Strazha and s.Kultino Albanians come from Dukachin Luma. The last village, Abdurrahman Pasha in the early 19th century expelled Macedonians and Albanians settled (material (Sofia), 437, 439, 446-447).

In Zhedenskata area until the early 19th century Macedonians lived exclusively, but later the Albanians to migrate there from Rech and Dolni Debar.

The Albanian violence, made Macedonians to mass flee Nest and left empty villages. Vasil K´nchov in the last decade of the 19th century, visited Macedonia and describes the village of Gorno year 1860 and counted 30 Macedonian families. In 1890 villages Palatica, Korito,Forino and Chajle, was left bare and empty.

(V. "News" years. II no. 12, 13th / Vasil Kъnchov, "Makedoniя. Etnografiя and statistics" Chastna pъrva.Narodi c Makedoniя. Arnauts., P. 83-100).

Macedonian ethnographer Trifunoski mentions that Katranje villages and Erebino shared the same fate and was left empty.

(J. Trifunoski, nest, 39-40).
There are strong hints that antique Macedonians were either an Illyrian tribe or their close relatives. So Albanians are much longer legal residents of Macedonia.
Skaderbeg was from town of Dibra which means the Albanian presence was strong and well.
Slavs homeland is Asia and they can't claim others god given lands, as their own.
With the help of Russia in 1913 half of Albanian population was left out of their borders and now is becoming a boomerang for Slav Macedonians since Albanian numbers are equalling them.
 
I think that Albanians mostly have Thracian origin on the males side, cause the Y-dna of Albanians is close to Y-dna of modern Bulgarians.
 
Bosnians are partly Illyrian. So are Croats, Serbs and Macedonians. They absorbed the Illyrian population that was there at the time of their arrival.
It's a shame you are doubting Bosnian's Hecegovina's Slavic heritage. I can't explain why the language Bosnians and Croats are speaking sounds Illyrian to you? Just because they sit in Albanian lands/
I could be pockets where the population is originally Illyrian even though its very unlikely.
But the difference is Albanians are fully Illyrian descendants.
Even though there is any written document that says Albanians are Illyrians from the facts on the ground.
Its widely accepted that the mantle of the Earth is molted. Nobody has been there to verify but the fact that there are volcanoes make the observation credible.
Same thing Albanian language and Toponims are hard facts. you don't wan't to accept them. What can we do?
Keep believing what you want to believe!

Now you go back Roman rulling,
It is another thing Illyria Proprie Dicti and another Illyricum,

can you give us at least 5 Albanian toponyms?
and 5 Illyrian toponyms?
 
Bosnians are partly Illyrian. So are Croats, Serbs and Macedonians. They absorbed the Illyrian population that was there at the time of their arrival.
It's a shame you are doubting Bosnian's Hecegovina's Slavic heritage. I can't explain why the language Bosnians and Croats are speaking sounds Illyrian to you? Just because they sit in Albanian lands/
I could be pockets where the population is originally Illyrian even though its very unlikely.
But the difference is Albanians are fully Illyrian descendants.
Even though there is any written document that says Albanians are Illyrians from the facts on the ground.
Its widely accepted that the mantle of the Earth is molted. Nobody has been there to verify but the fact that there are volcanoes make the observation credible.
Same thing Albanian language and Toponims are hard facts. you don't wan't to accept them. What can we do?
Keep believing what you want to believe!

It is not fair that you put what I did not say.
I wrote that there are different theories, scientists, sources and that there are Bosnians who argue that they are Illyrians and not Albanians.
More people In Bosnia think so, I think it's gotten in their textbooks.
What I wrote yet that it would be good that Bosnians take participation in this thread, we'd hear some fresh approaches.
Science puts together the pieces of this matter but so far no one can explicitly says what it was not proven, constructions are not science, and have much more to do with politics.
 
There are strong hints that antique Macedonians were either an Illyrian tribe or their close relatives. So Albanians are much longer legal residents of Macedonia.
Skaderbeg was from town of Dibra which means the Albanian presence was strong and well.
Slavs homeland is Asia and they can't claim others god given lands, as their own.
With the help of Russia in 1913 half of Albanian population was left out of their borders and now is becoming a boomerang for Slav Macedonians since Albanian numbers are equalling them.

skanderberg did not live at the times of the romans and neither before the slavic migration..............he did nor even live in the early medieval period ............why mention him?
 
There are strong hints that antique Macedonians were either an Illyrian tribe or their close relatives. So Albanians are much longer legal residents of Macedonia.
Skaderbeg was from town of Dibra which means the Albanian presence was strong and well.
Slavs homeland is Asia and they can't claim others god given lands, as their own.
With the help of Russia in 1913 half of Albanian population was left out of their borders and now is becoming a boomerang for Slav Macedonians since Albanian numbers are equalling them.




Yes Iskander = Skanderberg= Alejandros, a name given by a Sultan to a what origin boy? illyrian Albanian Epirotan, Makedonian?
and what origin was your Alexander?
besides what connection has the name that a Sultan gave to a yenichar boy 1800 after the Alexander?

at Crusaders time half Dyrachium Spoke Greek, what happened to them? why they left?
or they are assimilated in modern Albania?

Albania a creation of Anju, what origin were Anju? Illyrian? what origin was Hunjades Huniades Makedonian? Slav?

Besides Albanian is an IE is a category by its own but except satem also belongs to the Northern groups meaning Balto-Germano-Slavic languages, meaning the only possible with Illyrian is the Celto-roman loanwords.

wiil you give 5 Illyrian and 5 Albanian toponyms? from antique before or same time of kastrioti time? not Greek neither Roman, neither Slavic, neither Thracian or Messapian.
 
Now you go back Roman rulling,
It is another thing Illyria Proprie Dicti and another Illyricum,

can you give us at least 5 Albanian toponyms?
and 5 Illyrian toponyms?
1) Illyrian; Dalmacia------------Albanian: Delme------------English;ship------Translation; Land of ships
2)" " " Dardania------------" " " " ": Dardania-----------" " ";Pear-------" " " " ": Land of pears
3) " " " Mollosia------------" " " ; Cameria------------" " ": Appple-----" " " " " Land of apples
4)" " " Ulcin ------------" " "; Ulqin__------------" " " Wolf -----" " " " Land of wolfes
5) " " " Illyria -------------- " " " I lire---------------" " ": Free-------" " " " Land of free
6) " " " Bardylis--------------" " ": Bardhyl------------" " ": Whitestar--" " " " Bright star
7) " " " Lisus ---------------" " ": Lis-----------------" " " : Oak-------" " "" " " Oak forest
 
Yes Iskander = Skanderberg= Alejandros, a name given by a Sultan to a what origin boy? illyrian Albanian Epirotan, Makedonian?
and what origin was your Alexander?
besides what connection has the name that a Sultan gave to a yenichar boy 1800 after the Alexander?

at Crusaders time half Dyrachium Spoke Greek, what happened to them? why they left?
or they are assimilated in modern Albania?

Albania a creation of Anju, what origin were Anju? Illyrian? what origin was Hunjades Huniades Makedonian? Slav?

Besides Albanian is an IE is a category by its own but except satem also belongs to the Northern groups meaning Balto-Germano-Slavic languages, meaning the only possible with Illyrian is the Celto-roman loanwords.

wiil you give 5 Illyrian and 5 Albanian toponyms? from antique before or same time of kastrioti time? not Greek neither Roman, neither Slavic, neither Thracian or Messapian.
Illyria was called the whole country. Then there were provinces like Epirus, Dardania, Liburnis,Emadhia( Albanian translation: Large land) is the name Hellenes called antique Macedonia
Same thing with Hellens they were 4 or 5 large groups like Ionians, Aeolians, Dorians and I don't know
The name Scanderbeg is Turkish for Alexander ( Was a high title given to Generals)
His Albanian name was George Kastrioti. He was of orthodox belief and showed its religion in the flag he was carrying.
During the Byzantine times Orthodox church flag had a double eagle in a white field.
Now Scanderbegs family flag had a double eagle in a read field. This flag was adopted by Albanian Renaissance movement as national flag. But at the time of Scanderbeg the aim of this flag was to show belonging to Orthodoxy. There are other Albanians who think the origin of the eagle has not connection with orthodoxy, but personally I tend to believe this version.
 
Yes Iskander = Skanderberg= Alejandros, a name given by a Sultan to a what origin boy? illyrian Albanian Epirotan, Makedonian?
and what origin was your Alexander?
besides what connection has the name that a Sultan gave to a yenichar boy 1800 after the Alexander?

at Crusaders time half Dyrachium Spoke Greek, what happened to them? why they left?
or they are assimilated in modern Albania?

Albania a creation of Anju, what origin were Anju? Illyrian? what origin was Hunjades Huniades Makedonian? Slav?

Besides Albanian is an IE is a category by its own but except satem also belongs to the Northern groups meaning Balto-Germano-Slavic languages, meaning the only possible with Illyrian is the Celto-roman loanwords.

wiil you give 5 Illyrian and 5 Albanian toponyms? from antique before or same time of kastrioti time? not Greek neither Roman, neither Slavic, neither Thracian or Messapian.
Yes, Hellens had a number of colonies along the Albanian coast. I don't really know what happened to them since Greek colonies predate Christ. Then Romans took over those cities and brought their stuff. Archaeological discoveries show the presence of Greek and Roman culture in the same place. I believe that Greek colonizers were educated in art and sculpture and architecture. Its possible that Romans took them over to Rome to build their architectural works. Its a well documented practice of Romans of taking to Rome people with knowledge.
 
I would not call it bias, I call it lack of ancient facts presented by albanians who claim this or that.

All I know is from the time that the Romans took modern Albainia from the macedonian empire to 150AD , no mention of albanians have been recorded by Roman governors nor the hundreds of surveyors who scoured the land looking for mines.
From 150 AD we have a scribe from Alexandria who mentions a town called related to some Albania, but nothing after that for another 600 plus years.

now tell me , why should anyone believe these fabricated stories from albanians
I don't think there is any documents that states the Hellenes are Greeks. But I have no doubt that present Greek population and Hellenes are to a large extent the same thing.
 
I think that Albanians mostly have Thracian origin on the males side, cause the Y-dna of Albanians is close to Y-dna of modern Bulgarians.
You could be right. There are Thracian toponims that are translated with present day Albanian, like Bessoi ( a thracian tribe) with bese ( Faithfull) in Albanian and some other toponims that I can't recall. Bessapara is a well known Thracian city. Usually Thracian cities end with the suffix para, which linguists translate it as " city". So in Thracian para=city. The problem is Albanian language does not accept this word formation. In Albanian should have been Parabessa instead of Bessapara. That's why Albanians reject the Thracian origin even though the toponims show that many of them are related with Albanian.
There are Albanian linguists that accept dual heritage Thraco-Illyrian, but as I said the sentence formation of Albanian language does not accept the Thracian order. I you reverse the order its perfect with Albanian.
Y DNA of Albanian males does not necessarily show Thracian heritage. We have similar y DNA with Greeks.
 
Even though there is any written document that says Albanians are Illyrians from the facts on the ground.
Its widely accepted that the mantle of the Earth is molted. Nobody has been there to verify but the fact that there are volcanoes make the observation credible.
Same thing Albanian language and Toponims are hard facts. you don't wan't to accept them. What can we do?
Keep believing what you want to believe!

Axiom level 999 :)

There are strong hints that antique Macedonians were either an Illyrian tribe or their close relatives. So Albanians are much longer legal residents of Macedonia.
Skaderbeg was from town of Dibra which means the Albanian presence was strong and well.
Slavs homeland is Asia and they can't claim others god given lands, as their own.
With the help of Russia in 1913 half of Albanian population was left out of their borders and now is becoming a boomerang for Slav Macedonians since Albanian numbers are equalling them.

So what are Albanian God given lands?
 
I think that Albanians mostly have Thracian origin on the males side, cause the Y-dna of Albanians is close to Y-dna of modern Bulgarians.

You can see thread "Thracians spoke Balto Slavic language", where Romanians and Serbs, also and today's Bulgarians are probably mostly desendants of Thracians.

It is possible that ancestors of todays Albanians had a close environment with Dacians, somewhere in Romania. Here and another forums some members pointed that Albanians probably originate from the area in/about Romania or they had lived in Romania any time, probably in mountain areas. And when they left that areas they came to Bulgaria, and with the progress of Bulgarian state, to Adriatic. If it is correct then Albanians has nothing with Illyrians.

According Y-DNA it is interesting situation, they have E-V13 (relative majority), J2, R1b (mostly Armenian haplotype, Ht35), R1a, and less I2a.

What can be some explanation, if such movements were:

Armenians or similar Caucasian people mostly R1b Ht35 came in mountain areas of Romania (similar at Caucasus), here met numerous group of indigenous, who much earlier came as early farmers with Middle East/Egypt, mostly E-V13. There they were mixed but it is possible that the elite consisted by Caucasians. Meanwhile, in the meantime they had liguistic influence of Dacians. When they moved to Bulgaria had different impacts which in reflected in haplogroups. Certainly, in Romania and Bulgaria, R1a and I2a entered in their population.

If the basis of Albanian is Armenian, or similar, then problem don't exist, because Armenian is Satem. Some words are from E-V13 population. And impacts of Dacian can be explained.

But it is possible (Dienekes wrote about it) that J2 came in their population the latest, with Greek assimilation, maybe in Adriatic and hinterland. It can be explanation why in Albanian has relatively few Greek words, when Greek population is assimilated language was already created. Far is all proven but it is a possible explanation of movement. If it is true of course that there are Thracian/Slavic DNA (I2a, R1a) but it is interestnig more in Tosks than Gegs.
 
@Garrick

Don't overestimate E-V13. It's high percentage on Kosovo is just an anomaly due to a recent and obvious genetic drift. It's even higher than in Albania itself.
If you want to see thing clearly just think of that area colored same as others around, as it was up to 200 years ago.
 
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